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Indian  Corn  Culture 


By  CHARLES    S.   PLUMB,   B.  Sc. 

DIRECTOR  INDIANA  AGRICULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


ILLUSXRATED 


CHICAGO: 

breeder's  gazette  print. 

1895. 


Copyright,  1895, 

BY  THE  J.  H.  SANDERS  PUB.  CO. 

(All  rights  reserved.) 


PREFACE. 


Ill  1828  William  Cobbett,  a  rather  eccentric 
yet  famous  Englishman  who  for  a  time  resided 
in  America,  loublished  in  London  ''A  Treatise 
on  Cobbett's  Corn."  Thirty-eight  years  later, 
in  1866,  Edward  Enfield  published  in  New 
York  a  book  on  "Indian  Corn;  Its  Value,  Cul- 
ture and  Uses,"  These  are  the  only  volumes 
in  the  English  language,  within  the  knowledge 
of  the  writer,  that  have  been  written  as  hand- 
books on  Indian  corn  for  farmers.  Since  these 
books  were  issued  much  valuftble  information 
has  accumulated  concerning  the  corn  plant, 
and  it  is  due.  to  this  fact  that  this  volume  was 
written.  In  America  this  cereal  is  grown 
more  extensively  than  is  any  other,  and  its 
great  food  value  for  man  and  beast  is  fully 
recognized. 

For  a  large  amount  of  the  present  knowledge 
we  have  of  Indian  corn  we  are  indebted  to  the 
researches  conducted  at  the  agricultural  ex- 


4  PREFACE. 

periment  stations.  This  volume  is  rather  in 
the  nature  of  a  compilation  of  such  informa- 
tion as  seems  to  the  writer  might  be  of  service 
to  American  corn-growers.  It  is  not  a  special 
account  of  the  author's  experience  in  growing 
this  crop,  but  rather  of  the  results  of  many 
cultivators.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  go 
into  general  details  when  it  has  seemed  un- 
necessary, and  some  subjects  have  been  lightly 
touched  upon  as  unimportant.  But  if  the 
volume  as  a  whole  shall  be  of  material  service 
to   our  corn-growers  it  will   have   served  its 

purpose. 

CHARLES   S.  PLUMB. 

Purdue  University,  Lafayette,  Ind. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

I.  Historical,  Notes 7 

II.  Botanical  Characteristics 12 

III.  Varieties  and  Their  Adaptation 20 

IV.  The  Seed 48 

V.  Manures  and  Fertilizers 58 

VI.  Tillage 71 

VII.  Planting 83 

VIII.  Harvesting 99 

IX.  Rotation  of  Crops 121 

X.  Insects 126 

XI.  Diseases 147 

XII.  Chemical  Composition  and  Digestibility.  154 

XIII.  The  Feeding  of  Live  Stock IGl 

XIV.  Soiling 184 

XV.  Silos  and  Silage 192 

XVI.  Statistics 205 

XVII.  Miscellaneous 21.3 

XVIII.  Literature  on  Indian  Corn 234 


CHAPTER    I. 


HISTORICAL. 

Indian  corn,  the  Zea  mays  of  botanists,  is  un- 
questionably native  to  America.  Before  the 
discovery  of  this  country  by  Columbus  this 
cereal  was  unknown  in  Europe,  Asia  or  Africa. 
Maize  was  undoubtedly  grown  by  the  inhabit- 
ants of  North,  Central  and  South  America  in 
IDrehistoric  times.  Mounds  that  were  erected 
prior  to  the  time  of  the  American  Indian,  of 
which  he  has  no  tradition,  that  have  been  ex- 
plored in  recent  years,  have  contained  corncobs 
and  charred  kernels.  In  mounds  excavated  at 
Madisonville,  0.,  in  1879,  remains  of  maize  were 
found  in  quantities.  In  the  caves  occupied  by 
the  early  Cliff  Dwellers  in  the  southwestern 
United  States,  ears  of  corn  have  been  frequently 
discovered.  In  South  America  Darwin  found 
on  the  coast  of  Peru,  "heads  of  maize,  together 
with  eighteen  species  of  recent  sea  shells,  em- 
bedded in  a  beach  which  had  been  upraised  at 
least  eighty-five  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.'"'' 

*  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,  New  York, 
1890,  I,  p.  338. 

(7) 


O  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

Eaj's  of  Indian  corn  are  occasionally  found 
in  vessels  placed  in  ancient  Indian  tombs  or 
mounds  in  Chili,  Peru  and  Central  America. 
The  Smithsonian  Institute  at  Washington  has 
numerous  interesting  specimens  of  corn,  ex- 
humed from  mounds  and  tombs,  that  must  be 
very  ancient.  One  specimen  was  discovered 
deposited  in  an  earthen  vessel  eleven  feet  under 
ground  in  a  grave  with  a  mummy,  near  Ari- 
quipe,  Peru.=^  Marcay  refers  to  corn  found  in 
Aymara  Indian  tombs  in  South  America,  that, 
from  the  material  accompanying  it,  must  belong 
to  a  period  long  before  the  Spanish  conquest.f 
Among  the  ruins  of  Peru  are  stone  carvings  of 
ears  of  corn,  executed  centuries  ago,  before  the 
discovery  by  Europeans. 

Original  Home. — The  original  home  of  In- 
dian corn  is  thought  by  some  to  be  Central 
America  or  Mexico,  south  of  the  twenty-second 
degree  of  north  latitude.^  In  1888  Prof.  Duges 
collected  at  Moro  Leon,  north  of  Lake  Cuitzco, 
Mexico,  several  corn  plants  which  have  been 
termed  wild  maize,  and  considered  by  some  to 
be  the  original  parent  of  Indian  corn.  Plants 
from  this  source  were  grown  at  the  Cambridge, 


*  Report  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  1870 
p.  420. 

t  Travels  in  South  America,  I,  p.  69. 

J  Maize:  A  botanical  and  economical  study,  by  John  W. 
Harshberger,  1893,  p.  202. 


HISTORICAL. 


9 


Mass.,  botanical  gardens,  at  Philadelphia  and 
at  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

The  Indians  of  Mexico  and  the  southwestern 
United  States  have  for  centuries  grown  corn 
very  similar  in  general  conformation  to  that 
found  in  the  mounds  of  ancient  times,  which  is 
quite  unlike  that  grown  in  the  northern  corn 
belt.  This  corn  is  soft  or  starchy,  of  color  rang- 
ing from  white  to  pink,  blue  and  other  shades, 
has  a  large  cob,  and  round,  smooth  topped 
kernels  of  fair  size.    Says  Sturtevant:* 

"Centeotl,  in  Mexico,  was  goddess  of  maize,  and  hence  of 
agriculture,  and  was  known,  according  to  Clavigero,  by  the 
title,  among  others,  of  Tonacajohua,  'she  who  sustains  us.' 
Sahagrun  writes  of  the  seventy-eight  chapels  of  the  great 
Temple  of  Mexico,  that  the  forty-fifth  edifice  was  called 
Cinteupan,  and  therein  was  a  statue  of  the  god  of  maize." 

Indians  as  corn-growers.— The  early  Amer- 
ican explorers  discovered  the  Indians  cultivat- 
ing fields  of  maize.  Delafield  tells  usf  that 
"when  Cartier  visited  Hochelaga,  now  called 
Montreal,  in  1535,  that  town  was  situated  in 
the  midst  of  extensive  cornfields."  Champlain 
in  1603  found  cornfields  eastward  from  the 
Kennebec  river.  In  1621,  Squanto,  an  Indian, 
showed  the  Puritans  how  to  plant  and  care  for 
maize,  and  some  twenty  acres  were  planted  and 
successfully  grown.J  At  the  time  of  the  Pequot 

*  American  Naturalist,  March,  1885,  p.  226. 
t  Transactions  New  York  State  agricultural  society,  1850, 
p.  386. 

J  Harshberger;  Maize:  A  botanical  study,  etc.,  p.  131. 


10 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


war  in  1637  the  English  destroyed  over  two 
hundred  acres  of  corn  planted  by  the  Indians. 
The  Puritans  in  King  Philii3's  war,  in  1675,  took 
"what  he  had  worth,  spoiled  the  rest,  and  also 
took  possession  of  one  thousand  acres  of  corn, 
which  was  harvested  by  the  English."*  Wher- 
ever the  early  explorers  or  voyagers  went  they 
found  either  fields  of  Indian  corn  or  the  Indians 
using  the  grain  for  food.  Capt.  John  Smith,  in 
his  "Indians  of  Virginia,"  tells  of  the  methods 
of  planting  at  that  time  (160S).  Cabeea  de  Vaca 
found  an  abundance  of  maize  near  Tampa  Bay, 
Florida,  in  1528.t  In  1679  La  Salle,  when  on  a 
trip  through  the  Great  Lakes  and  across  Illinois, 
found  large  quantities  of  stored  corn  in  a  vil- 
lage of  Illinois  Indians  and  took  about  forty 
bushels  of  it.J  Columbus  in  1498  writes  to 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  the  maize  plant  and 
of  fields  eighteen  miles  long.  The  early  ex- 
plorers also  noted  maize  as  an  important  article 
of  food  for  man  in  Yucatan,  Nicaragua,  and 
Mexico. 

Harsliberger's  conclusions. — In  his  impor- 
tant historical  study  of  maize,  Ilarshberger 
says:§ 

"The  evidence  of  archaeology,  history,  ethnology,  and 
philology,  which  points  to  central  and  southern  Mexico  as 

* Harshberger;  Maize:    A  botanical  study,  etc.,  p.  131. 
t  Torrey  Botanical  Club  Bulletin,  VI,  p.  86. 
J  Harshberger;  Maize:   A  botanical  study,  etc.,  p.  135. 
I  Ibid.,  p.  151. 


HISTORICAL. 


11 


the  original  home  of  maize,  is  supported  by  botany  and 
meteorology.  All  of  the  plants  closely  related  to  maize  are 
Mexican.  It  is  an  accepted  evolutionary  principle  that  sev- 
eral species  of  the  same  genus,  or  genera  of  the  same  tribe, 
though  dispersed  to  the  most  distant  quarters  of  the  globe, 
must  originally  have  proceeded  from  the  same  source,  as  they 
are  descended  from  the  same  progenitors.  It  is  also  obvious 
that  the  individuals  of  the  same  species,  though  now  in  dis- 
tant regions,  must  have  proceeded  from  one  spot,  where  their 
parents  were  first  produced;  for  it  is  incredible  that  individ- 
uals, identically  the  same,  should  have  been  produced  from 
parents  specifically  distinct.  Applying  these  principles  to 
maize,  we  reach  the  conclusion  that  maize  was  originally 
Mexican.  *  *  *  The  evidence  to  the  pi^esent  date  (1893) 
places  the  original  home  of  our  American  cereal,  maize,  in 
central  Mexico." 


12  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


CHAPTER   II. 


BOTANICAL  CHARACTERISTICS. 

Indian  corn  is  known  by  botanists  as  Zea 
mays.  It  belongs  to  the  grass  family  and  is  an 
annual  plant.  It  is  classed  as  an  endogenous 
plant  for  the  reason  that  it  increases  in  height 
and  diameter  of  stem  by  internal  growth. 

The  root  is  of  two  classes,  primary  and  sec- 
ondar}^  The  former  is  fine  and  fibrous,  and 
in  the  field  the  plant  produces  a  large  mass  of 
these  roots.  No  long  tap  root  is  developed; 
consequently,  as  with  the  grasses  generally,  the 
roots  branch  out  in  all  directions  rather  near 
the  surface.  For  this  reason  shallow  cultiva- 
tion of  the  growing  crop  is  advocated,  as  break- 
ing the  roots  is  deemed  an  injury  to  the  grow- 
ing plant. 

In  interesting  experiments  conducted  by 
Prof.  F.  H.  King  at  the  Wisconsin  experiment 
station"^  upon  the  development  of  corn  roots 
in  natural  soils  under  the  conditions  of  field  cul- 
tivation, he  washed  out  plants  at  different  stages 

*  Ninth  annual  report  Wisconsin  experiment  station,  1892, 
p.  112. 


BOTANICAL   CHARACTERISTICS.  13 

of  growth.  Forty-two  clays  after  planting, 
when  the  plants  were  18  inches  high,  the  roots 
of  two  hills  met  and  passed  each  other  in  the 
center  between  rows  42  inches  apart,  and  had 
penetrated  to  a  depth  of  18  inches.  The  sur- 
face roots  sloped  gently  downward  toward  the 
center,  where  those  nearest  to  the  surface  were 
some  eight  inches  deep.  At  the, last  cultiva- 
tion, when  the  plants  were  nearly  three  feet 
high,  the  roots  occupied  the  entire  soil  to  a 
depth  of  two  feet,  with  the  surface  roots  six 
inches  below  the  center  between  the  rows.  At 
tassel  time  the  roots  fully  occupied  the  upper 
three  feet  of  soil  in  the  entire  field,  and  in  the 
center  between  the  rows  the  surface  roots  were 
still  higher,  a  few  being  scarcely  five  inches 
deep.  At  maturity  the  roots  were  found  pene- 
trating to  a  depth  exceeding  four  feet  and 
within  four  inches  of  the  surface  in  the  center 
between  rows.  In  connection  with  this  study 
Prof.  King  estimates  that  the  plants  on  a  well- 
tilled  acre  are  required  to  pump  from  below 
during  growth  from  300  to  400  tons  of  water. 
The  wonderful  feeding  power  of  the  corn  roots 
is  shown  in  this  striking  development  and  ac- 
tivity. 

After  the  corn  plant  becomes  well  established 
and  has  nearly  reached  its  full  height  the  sec- 
ondary roots  come  from  the  stem  near  the 
ground.    They  first  appear  as  nodules   from 


14  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

which  develop  the  root  tips,  which  proceed  to 
make  a  downward  growth  into  tlie  soil.  After 
penetrating  slightly  below  the  surface  a  mass 
of  fibrous  roots  is  produced  from  this  buried 
portion.  These  roots  assist  in  maintaining  the 
erect  position  of  the  plant,  as  well  as  in  secur- 
ing nourishment  and  moisture.  Generally  the 
depth  of  the  x^lanting  does  not  influence  the 
depth  of  the  rooth  growth. 

The  stem  (or  culm)  of  Indian  corn,  varies  in 
height  from  18  inches  to  18  feet,  according  to 
the  Variety  and  conditions  of  growth.  Sturte- 
vant  even  notes  one  variety  in  South  America 
attaining  a  height  of  24  feet.  The  stem  consists 
of  a  number  of  smooth  sections  (internodes), 
joined  together  by  short  joints  (nodes).  The 
mature  stem  has  a  pithy  interior  with  a  thin 
covering  of  harder  material. 

In  a  study  made  by  the  writer  on  the  rate 
of  growth  of  the  corn  plant,  at  the  New  York 
experiment  station  it  was  noted  that  the  in- 
crease ranged  from  three  to  18|  inches  per  week 
in  gain.  The  most  rapid  development  occurred 
when  the  plants  were  about  five  weeks  old. 
Under  specially  favorable  conditions  a  growth 
of  five  inches  has  been  recorded  in  one  day. 

The  leaves  grow  from  the  joints,  there  being 
a  leaf  at  each  one.  For  a  greater  part  of  the 
stem,  the  lower  part  of  the  leaf  (sheath)  is 
wrapped  about  the  stem  from  one  joint  almost 


BOTANICAL   CHARACTERISTICS.  15 

to  the  next.  In  a  study  of  the  corn  plant  at 
the  Iowa  experiment  station,*  the  number  of 
leaves  on  a  stalk  varied  with  field  corn  from  12 
to  18,  with  a  width  of  blade  from  3|  to  5J  in- 
ches. Microscopical  examination  of  a  number 
of  varieties  showed  considerable  difference  in 
the  thickness  of  the  leaf  structure  and  in  the 
amount  of  green  coloring  matter  present.  At 
the  Missouri  station.  Prof.  Schweitzer  measured 
the  leaf  surface  of  a  vigorous  plant  of  average 
development.!  "The  total  surface  of  the  twelve 
living  leaves  on  one  side  was  1,633.73  square 
inches,  which  doubled  for  both  sides,  and  add- 
ing the  area  of  the  outside  of  the  sheaths, 
makes  the  total  external  leaf  surface  of  this 
plant  3,480  square  inches,  or  24  square  feet." 
Schweitzer  considers  the  leaves  the  chief  source 
of  production  of  organic  matter,  and  while  16 
or  18  may  be  produced  in  our  climate,  the  lower 
ones  die  off  before  maturity,  and  activity  is 
confined  to  perhaps  twelve. 

The  flower  is  of  two  kinds,  male  and  female. 
The  former  is  known  as  the  tassel,  and  is  situ- 
ated at  the  tip  of  the  stem  in  the  form  of  a 
branching  head  (panicle),  while  the  latter  is  lo- 
cated in  between  the  sheaths  of  leaf  and  stem, 


*  Iowa  agricultural  college  experiment  station.  Bulletin 
No.  2,  September,  18S8. 

t  Missouri  agricultural  experiment  station.  Bulletin  No. 
5,  February,  1889. 


16  INDIAN   CORN    CULTURE. 

and  consists  of  a  mass  of  fine  hairs  called  silk, 
enclosed  iu  the  husks  of  the  ears  to  be.  The 
tassel  contains  many  small  flowers  (see  Fig.  1), 

and  each  of  these 
produces  a  large 
amount  of  pollen  or 
dust  for  fertilizing 
the  female  flowers. 
This  pollen  is  from 
the  anthers  of  the 
floW'Crs,  and  accord- 
ing to  Harshberger* 
as  many  as  2,500 
are    formed    in    a 

Fig.  1.— The  stem  at  left  Is  a  branch  of  the      •         i  j.i  j 

male  panicle, BhowlDgspikelels.  Tbecenter  SlUglC  antlier,  aUCl 
fipure  Is  of  a  pair  of   these  splkelets  re-  ^^r\  r\r\r\ 

moved.  The  fleure  at  the  rlpht  is  one  of  1  S  (lOO  ()()()  arft  fflVCn 
the  male  splkclete  opened,  showing  two  au,\juu,vuu  cti  c  givcii 
flowers  inside.    (After  Uarehberger.)  ^g    .(.|^g  nUmbCr  pi'O- 

duced  by  each  plant,  there  being  7,200  stamens 
to  a  panicle. 

The  female  (pistillate)  flowers  being  located 
below  the  male  (staminate),  the  pollen  of  the 
male  is  blown  about  in  the  air  and  falls  onto 
the  silks  which  protrude  from  the  enclosing 
husks,  and  fertilizes  them.  Each  silk  extends 
back  into  the  husk  and  to  the  seat  of  what  will 
become  a  kernel  of  corn  if  fully  fertilized.  The 
content  of  this  husk  is  an  embryo  ear  of  corn. 
The  portion  of  the  silk  exposed  is  somewhat 
hairy  without,  and  is  a  hollow  tube  within. 

*  Maize:  A  botanical  study,  etc.,  p.  85, 


BOTANICAL   CHARACTERISTICS. 


17 


(The  awl  shaped  figure  in  Fig.  2,  with  ovule  at 
base.)  The  pollen  develops  down  into  this  tube 
and  fertilizes  this  embryo 
seed  (ovule)  at  its  base  on 
the  little  cob.  The  small, 
rough  point  seen  on  the 
round  or  flat  head  of  a 
kernel  of  corn  is  the  point 
where  this  silk  was  at- 
tached to  it. 

The  kernel  or  seed.— 
While  but  one  botanical 

FIG. 2.-A  longitudinal  section  of  species     of     001*11     IS     Cultl" 
n  portion  of  an  ear  with  femnle  ,       i        ,i    •  i 

spikelois  in  a  hardenea  deprfs-  yatcd,     thlS     OUe      maV      06 
slon  of  cob,  Tvlth  ovary,  glumes  '  -^ 

and  puleis.  (After  UarBhberger.)  (-|^^-Jg(J     ^^-^^q     f]yg     grOUpS 

or  races.     Each  race  is  characterized   by  nu- 
merous varieties,  and  these  freely  cross-fertilize, 


so  that  two  or  three  types  of  seed  may  be  found 
on  the  same  ear.  This  race  difference,  so  far 
as  the  writer  knows,  was  first  pointed  out  by 
Dr.  E.  L.  Sturtevant.*  These  races  may  be  de- 
scribed as  follows,  and  the  relative  differences 

*  Maize:   An  attempt  at  classification.     By  E.  Lewis  Stur- 
tevant,  M.  D.,  Rocliestev,  N.  Y.,  1884,  p.  10;  illustrated. 
% 


18  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

between  them  clearly  seen  by  splitting  the 
kernels.  In  Fig.  3  the  shaded  parts  of  kernel 
above  the  base  represent  hard  or  corneous  mat- 
ter; the  white  parts  starchy  matter. 

Pop  corn. — The  substance  of  the  center  ker- 
nel is  hard  and  flinty  (corneous)  all  through, 
excepting  at  the  germ  end,  no  white,  soft 
starchy  substance  being  present.  See  a  in 
Fig.  3. 

Flint  corn. — The  corneous  matter  surrounds 
the  sides  and  top  of  the  kernel,  so  that  it  is  en- 
closed in  a  hard,  flinty  coat,  with  soft  starchy 
substance  in  the  central  part.  The  kernel  is 
usually  about  as  broad  as  long,  and  rounding 
and  smooth  over  the  top.  Flint  corn  is  some- 
what smaller  than  dent,  and  is  best  suited  to 
New  England  and  the  northern  line  of  corn 
growing.    See  h  in  Fig.  3. 

Dent  corn. — The  sides  of  the  kernels  consist 
of  corneous  matter  with  the  central  part  filled 
with  soft  material,  even  to  the  dented  or  con- 
tracted rough  top.  This  contraction  is  due  to 
shrinking  of  the  softer  part  of  the  kernel  in 
ripening.  The  kernel  in  many  varieties  is 
slender  or  wedge  form.  Nearly  all  the  corn 
grown  in  the  great  corn  belt  of  the  Central 
West  belongs  to  this  race.    See  c  in  Fig.  3. 

Sweet  corn. — The  kernels  consist  of  translu- 
cent, horny  material,  which  contain  consider- 
able sugar  (glucose)  instead  of  starch,     T.he 


BOTANICAL    CHARACTERISTICS.  19 

kernels  in  most  varieties  are  quite  wrinkled  or 
twisted  and  are  distinctly  wedge  shape.  See  d 
in  Fig.  3. 

Soft  corn. — Excepting  the  germ  the  entire 
kernel  is  starchy  and  soft  in  character  and  has 
somewdiat  the  form  of  the  flints.  This  race  is 
more  commonly  grown  in  the  sub-tropical  corn 
regions,  as  the  far  Southwest  and  in  Mexico. 
This  is  the  early  form  of  corn  as  grown  l^y  the 
Indians.     See  e  in  Fig.  3. 

Pod  corn. — Additional  to  the  above  another 
form  is  found,  which  is  rather  uncommon.  Pod 
or  husk  corn  is  a  variety  in  which  each  kernel 
is  enclosed  in  a  small  husk,  while  the  aggrega- 
tion of  kernels,  which  may  form  a  long  or  short 
ear,  is  enclosed  in  large  external  husks  on  a 
simple  cob,  as  with  common  ears.  Flint  and 
dent  corn  may  exist  iu  this  variety.  Pod-corn 
seed  when  planted  will  usually  give  a  crop  of 
both  podded  and  unpodded  ears. 

Classified  by  seed. — Each  known  variety  of 
Indian  corn  may  be  easily  classified  with  one 
of  the  so-called  races,  according  to  its  seed. 
However,  if  two  or  more  races  are  grown  near 
by  there  will  no  doubt  be  ears  composed  of  a 
mixture  of  each  class,  especially  if  the  flowers 
develop  at  the  same  time. 


20  INDIAN   OOEN   CULTURE. 


CHAPTER   III. 


VARIETIES  AND  THEIR  ADAPTATION. 

Indian  corn  is  easily  cross-fertilized,  accident- 
ally or  artificially,  and  as  a  result  many  so- 
called  new  varieties  have  been  introduced  in 
the  past.  As  a  rule  but  few  have  remained  in 
general  public  favor  for  a  long  term  of  years, 
as  it  is  difficult  to  find  a  variety  that  will  adapt 
itself  to  a  wide  geographical  range  and  climatic 
and  soil  variations. 

Selecting  a  variety. — In  selecting  a  variety 
two  things  necessarily  should  receive  considera- 
tion: first,  the  capacity  to  mature  a  crop  in  a 
given  locality,  and  secondl}'',  productiveness  in 
grain,  or  grain  and  forage.  In  this  work  it 
seems  best  to  discuss  this  subject  in  two  ways: 
first,  to  describe  a  numl3er  of  standard  varieties, 
and  secondly,  to  give  a  list  of  varieties  adapted 
to  different  States,  covering  a  .wide  territory. 
The  descriptions  of  varieties  are  gleaned  from 
various  sources,  but  unless  otherwise  indicated, 
are  mainly  on  the  basis  of  the  published  inves- 
tigations of  Dr.  E.  L.  Sturtevant  (our  l^est  au- 
thority on  varieties)  in  the  New  York  State  ex- 


VARIETIES    AND   THEIR   ADAPTATION. 


21 


periment  station  reports,  and  the  bulletins  of 
the  Illinois  agricultural  experiment  station. 
The  references  of  varieties  to  the  several  States 
is  as  a  result  of  the  tests  made  by  the  various 
agricultural  experiment  stations,  unless  other- 
wise specified. 

Tested  varieties. — The  following  varieties 
have  been  w^ell-tested  in  this  country,  some  of 
them  for  many  years,  and  it  is  believed  that 
from  this  list  one  can  make  a  most  satisfactory 
selection  for  almost  any  part  of  the  United 
States  or  Canada.  The  reader  is  here  re- 
minded that  some  of  the  varieties,  if  grown  in 
the  West  or  South,  may  be  larger  than  is  here 
indicated  in  the  descriptions. 

Dent  varieties.— ^f/fn;?s'  Early:    Ears  six  to 


Fig. 4— Adams'  Earlv. 


seven  inches  long,  about  If  inches  in  diameter, 
slightly  or  strongly  tapering,  rounding  at  the 
butt;  12  to  16  rowed,  the  rows  often  slightly 


22 


INDIAN    CORN    CULTURE. 


spirally  or  irregular!}^  arranged.  Kernels 
slightly  deeper  than  broad;  white  above,  horny 
white  below,  long  dimple  dented  or  creased. 
Cob  large,  white.  Plant  5^  to  6A  feet  tall.  A 
favorite  in  the  South  for  table  use  in  place  of 
sweet  corn. 

Blount's  Prolific:  Eai's  6  to  8  inches  long,  and 
If  to  1|  inches  in  diameter.  Ear  stalk  rather 
small.  Mostly  eight  rowed.  Kernels  very 
angular  in  outline^  rather  deep,  white  at  top, 
glossy  white  below,  crease  dented.  Cob  small 
and  Avhite.  Plant  7  to  8  feet  high,  bearing  its 
upper  ears  about  54  inches  from  the  ground, 
often  4  to  8  on  a  stalk,  the  lower  ears  shorter 
and  more  pointed  than  the  upper.  A  very 
popular  and  productive  variety  in  some  local- 
ities in  the  South  and  has  been  Avidely  grown. 
Originated  by  Prof.  A.  E.  Blount  in  Tennessee. 

Boone  Co  White:  Ears  long  and  uniform  from 
butt  to  tip.  Kernels  white,  deep,  thick;  cob 
white.  Stalks  of  medium  height,  thick,  strong. 
Very  productive.  Medium  late.  Originated  by 
James  Riley,  Boone  Co.,  Ind.,  about  1880.  Pro- 
ductive and  popular  as  a  bread  corn.  AVell 
adapted  to  the  central  West. 

Burrill  S  Whitman  or  B.  S  W.:  Ears  8  to  9 
inches  long,  2  to  2.4  inches  in  diameter.  Cobs 
white,  small.  Ears  roughish,  tapering;  butt 
and  tip  evenly  rounded  and  well  filled;  14  to  16 
rowed.     Kernels  white,    broad,  wedge  shape. 


VARIETIES    AND   THEIR   ADAPTATION. 


23 


stalks  grow  about  10  to  11  feet  high  on  rich 
soils.  A  favorite  variety  for  silage,  but  is  too 
late  to  mature  seed  properly  in  the  North 
■where  early  frosts  occur. 

Chester  Co.  Mmmnoih:  Ears  7  to  11  inches 
long,  24  to  2|  inches  in  diameter;  smooth; 
slightly  tapering,  rounded  evenly  at  butt  and 


FIG.  5— Chester  Co.  Mammoth. 


tip;  18  to  30  rowed;  cob  red,  large.  Kernels 
yellow,  deep,  narrow,  thick,  crease  dented. 
Plants  tall.  Matures  late.  Mr.  E.  S.  Carman 
says:*  "We  have  never  raised  larger  ears  of 
Chester  County  Mammoth  corn  than  during  the 
IDast  season.    We  have  lots  of  ears  11  inches 

*Rural  New  Yorker,  Dec.  13,  1884,  p.  832. 


24  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

long,  with  18  rows  bearing  900  large  kernels." 
Originated  in  Chester  Co.,  Pa. 

'Dungan's  White  Prolific:  Originated  by  S.  W. 
Dungan  of  Johnson  Co..  Ind.  An  ear  sent  the 
writer  by  Mr.  Dungan,  as  his  "ideal,"  was  10| 
inches  long,  2 J  inches  in  diameter,  cylindrical, 
smooth,  compact,  16  rowed.  Kernels  white, 
crease  dented,  deep,  broad,  thick.  Cob  white, 
medium  size.  The  plant  as  grown  at  Lafay- 
ette, Ind.,  is  large  and  vigorous,  being  a  very 
desirable  variety  for  silage.  This  is  an  excel- 
lent bread  corn,  is  very  productive,  but  too  late 
for  the  northern  line  of  the  great  corn  belt. 
Well  adapted  to  Southern  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Kentucky,  etc. 

Farmer^ s  Favorite:  Ears  8  to  11  inches  long, 
2  to  2J  inches  in  diameter,  slightly  tapering,  14 
to  18  rowed,  smooth.  Cob  red,  of  medium  size. 
Kernels  wedge  shaped,  deeper  than  broad,  yel- 
low. Plants  of  medium  height.  Also  known 
as  Golden  Dent. 

Golden  Beauty:  Ears  9  to  10  inches  long, 
about  2|  inches  in  diameter;  smooth,  nearly 
cylindrical;  cob  white,  large,  does  not  cover 
well  at  tip.  Kernels  yellow,  wedge  shaped. 
Rows  16  to  20.  Plant  of  medium  height.  Me- 
dium late. 

Learning:  Ears  7  to  10  inches  long,  ij  to  2 J 
inches  in  diameter;  smooth,  slightly  tapering, 
often  pointed  at  tip;  cob  red,  large,  18  to  22 


VARIETIES   AND   THEIR   ADAPTATION.  25 

rowed.  Kernels  yellow  to  orange  above,  orange 
below,  dented,  corners  often  rounded,  deep, 
thick.    Plant  grows  8  to  10  feet  high.    Matures 


Fig.  0.— Leaming. 


medium  early.  One  of  the  most  popular  dents, 
adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  territory,  and  classed 
as  very  productive.  Originated  by  J.  S.  Learn- 
ing, Clinton  Co.,  0. 

Maryland  White  Gourd  Seed:  Ear  7  to  8 
inches  long,  about  2^  inches  in  diameter,  taper- 
ing, 16  rowed;  cob  white.  Kernels  white,  long^ 
dimple  dented.  Plants  grow  to  height  of  about 
10  feet.    Matures  late. 

Pride  of  the  North:  Ears  6  to  8  inches  long, 
two  inches  in  diameter,  rough,  12  to  18  rowed; 
cobs  red,  small.  Kernels  broadly  wedge  shaped, 
crease  dented.    Plants  of  medium  height,  ma- 


26 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


turing  early.  Resembles  Wisconsin  Yellow 
dent.  It  is  claimed*  that  this  variety  was 
originated  in  Fayette  Co.,  0.,  about  1813,  where 


Fig.  7.— Pride  of  the  North. 


it  has  been  known  for  many  years  as  Clarridge 
Corn. 
.  QUeen  of  the  Prairie:  Ears  6  to  8  inches  long 
and  about  If  inch  in  diameter,  slightly  taper- 
ing; cob  small,  red,  16  to  18  rowed.  Kernels 
yellow,  flat,  deeply  dented.  Plant  about  9  feet 
tall.     Matures  medium  early. 

Filey's  Favorite:  Ears  8  to  9  inches  long, 
about  2^  inches  in  diameter,  nearly  cylindrical, 
butt  and  tip  well  filled,  16  to  22  rowed;  cob 
red,  small.  Kernels  yellow,  narrow,  wedge 
shape,  deep.  Plants  of  medium  size,  strong, 
productive.  Mr.  James  Riley  of  Boone  Co.,  Ind., 
originated  this  corn  about  1880,  by  cross  fertil- 


•  J.  C.  in  Farmers'  Review,  April  23,  1890. 


VARIETIES   AND   THEIR   ADAPTATION.  27 

izing  Golden  Yellow  and  Pride  of  the  North. 
One  of  the  best  Yellow  dents  and  has  been  suc- 
cessfully grown  over  a  wide  range  of  territory. 
Smedley:  Ears  7  to  9|  inches  long,  about  two 
inches  in  diameter,  slightly  tapering,  butt  and 
tip  well  filled,  10  to  12  rowed;  cob  red,  small. 
Kernels  light  orange,  deep,  broad  at  top,  dent- 
ed.   Plants  of  medium  size,  maturing  early. 

Wisconsin  Yellow:  Ears  7  to  8  inches  long, 
about  two  inches  in  diameter,  tapering,  butt 
and  tip  rounding  evenly  and  well  filled,  mostly 
18  rowed;  cob  red,  medium  size.  Ketnels 
orange  yellow,  small,  deep,  dimple  dented. 
Plants  of  medium  size,  early.  A  well  known 
yellow  dent,  especially  for  the  northern  lati- 
tude of  the  corn  belt  where  dents  will 
succeed. 
Flint  varieties.— Ca««c?a,  also  known 
as  Early  Canada: 
Ears  8  to  10  inches 
long,  about  1^  inch 
in  diameter,  blunt- 
ly rounded  at  tip, 
mostly  8  -rowed  ; 
cob  white,  small 
Kernels  rather 
FIG.8.-CAKADA.  large,  deep  golden 

orange  color.     Plant  about  six  feet  tall. 
Matures  early. 

Canada  Twelve-Rowed;  also  Landreth's 


28  INDIAN   CORN    CULTURE. 

Earliest  Yelhiv:  Ears  7  to  10  inches  long,  about 
1^  inch  in  diameter,  tip  well  filled;  cob  medium 
to  large.  Kernels  small  to  medium,  golden 
orange  in  color.  Plants  attain  G|  to  7  feet.  A 
very  old  variety  adapted  to  the  northern  line 
of  the  corn  belt,  as  is  also  Canada. 

Compton^s  Early;  also  Comioton's  Swyrise: 
Ears  9  to  9i  inches  long  and  about  If  inch  in 
diameter,  pointed  at  tip;  cob  large,  white. 
Kernels  medium  size,  light  golden  orange  color. 
Plants  about  seven  feet  tall.  A  productive, 
good  variety,  widely  grown. 

Button:  Ears  9  to  10  inches  long  and  about 
If  inch  in  diameter,  with  rounded  tip;  cob 
small,  12  rowed.  Kernels  large,  golden  orange. 
Plants  6  to  7  feet  high.  Was  first  brought  into 
notice  by  Mr.  Salmon  Dutton,  Cavendish,  Vt., 
abo|it  1818.  "The  ears  of  corn  from  which  it 
waloriginally  selected  on  an  average  were  from 
8  to' 12  inches  long  and  contained  from  12  to  18 
row's.""'^'  A  very  productive  and  popular  variety 
in  the  Northeast.  A  form  of  this  known  as 
Early  Dutton  has  been  extensively  grown.  S. 
W.  Jewett  saysf  it  is  ''descended  from  seed  I 
obtained  from  Jesse  Buel,  selecting  it  myself 
from  his  corn  crib,  at  Albany,  about  1839." 

Eight  Boived  Yellow;  also  Long  Yellow:  Ears 


*  Transactions    New   York    State   Agricultural    Society, 
1853,  p.  334. 
t  Country  Gentleman,  May  8,  1834. 


VARIETIES   AND   THEIR   ADAPTATION. 


29 


10  to  11  inches  long,  about  1|  inch  in' diameter, 
slender,  slightly  tapering,  mostly  eight  rowed. 
Kernels  not  large,  deep  golden  orange. 

King  Philip;  also  Improved  King  Philip, 
Eight  Boned  Brown,  Eight  Bowed  Copper  Col- 
ored, Eight  Bowed  Yellow:  Ears  8  to  10  inches 
long,  about  •  U  inch  in  diameter,  resembling 
Canada    in    all   other    respects    except  color, 


Fia.  9. -King  Philip. 


which  is  copper  red.  Plant  8  to  9  feet  high. 
Named  after  the  celebrated  Indian  chief  of  the 
Wampanoags,  from  which  tribe  it  is  said^"  the 
seeds  were  ol)tained.  Sturtevant,  however, 
says  that  this  variety  was  originated  by  Mr. 
John  Brown,  Long  Island,  Lake  Winnipiseogee, 

*  Transactions  New  York  State  agricultural  society,  1853, 
p.  333. 


30  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

N.  H.*  This  is  a  hardy  variety,  adapted  to  the 
northern  corn  latitudes,  and  is  one  of  the  very 
best  and  most  popular  Hint  varieties. 

Longfelloiv :  Ears  9  to  10|  inches  long,  with 
tendency  to  expansion  at  butt,  tapering  toward 
the  well-filled  pointed  tip;  mostly  six  rowed; 
cob  white   and   small,   kernels  deep,   yellow- 


FlQ.  10.— LONGFELLOW. 

orange,  large,  well  rounded.  Plants  about  7 
feet  tall.  Gregory,  in  his  seed  catalogue  for 
1886  states  that  ^'it  is  the  result  of  careful  se- 
lection in  a  family  of  Massachusetts  farmers  for 
45  years."  A  most  popular  and  productive  va- 
riety, well  adapted  to  New  England. 

Neio  England  Eight  Bowed:   This  is  the  Can- 
ada or  Early  Canada  of  many,  and  it  has  many 

*  New  York  agricultural  experiment  station  report,  1884, 
p.  166. 


VARIETIES   AND   THEIR   ADAPTATION.  31 

local  names.  It  answers  to  the  general  char- 
acter of  the  Canada  variety.  Enfield  says:* 
"From  this  corn  the  King  Philip  and  some 
other  improved  sorts  have  probahly  been  de- 
rived." 

Rhode  Island  White  Flint:  Ears  5  to  6  inches 
long  and  about  1^  inch  in  diameter,  well  cov- 
ered at  tip,  eight  rowed,  small  cob,  often  red 
tinged  in  the  interior.  Kernels  white,  very 
large  and  hard.    Plants  about  7  feet  high. 

Rural  Thoroughbred  Flint:  Ears  11  to  12 
inches  long  and  about  2  inches  in  diameter,  al- 
ways tapering  owing  to  the  space  between  the 
pairs  of  rows  toward  the  butt;  mostly  eight 
rowed;  cob  large.  Kernels  dingy  white,  large. 
Plant  7  to  8  feet  high  and  a  vigorous  grower. 
A  very  late  variety,  the  chief  merit  of  which  is 
in  its  production  of  green  forage.  Introduced 
by  E.  S.  Carman,  editor  Rural  Neiv-Yorher. 

Waiishakmn:  Ears  8  J  to  9  inches  long,  1 J  inch 
in  diameter,  filling  completely  and  roundly  at 
tip;  cob  small,  white;  mostly  eight  rowed. 
Kernels  deep  golden  orange,  rather  large 
flatly  rounded,  very  close  set,  plants  7  to  9 
feet  high,  leafy,  very  productive.  Originated 
by  Sturtevant  Bros.,  South  Framingham,  Mass. 
"The  originals  were  quite  staple  varieties  of  a 
mixed  Canada  and  New  England  Eight  Rowed 

*  Indian  Corn.  New  York,  1866,  p.  61. 


32 


INDIAN   CORN    CULTURE. 


type,  which  Avere  allowed  to  hj^briclize  in  1875, 
and  the  ears  resulting  selected  to  the  desired 
type.    In    1877   and    1878,    at    the   period   of 


Fig.  11.— waushakum. 


bloom,  all  the  tassels  from  stalks  not  showing- 
one  large  ear,  and  from  all  imperfect  or  off 
type  plants,  w^ere  removed,  thus  insuring  the 
fertilization  of  the  ears  from  prolific  and  typal 
plants."*    An  unexcelled  yellow  variety. 

IVhite  Flint:  Ears  9  to  11  inches  long,  1-| 
inch  in  diameter,  tapering  slightl}'^,  tip  usually 
not  very  well  filled;  cob  medium  size;  mostly 
8  rowed.  Kernels  dingy  white,  medium  size. 
A  very  popular,  common  variety  in  the  North- 
eastern States. 


*E.  L.  Sturtevant:    Report  New  York  State  agricultural 
experiment  station,  1881. 


VARIETIES   AND   THEIR    ADAPTATION. 


33 


Sweet  varieties.— -B/ac/i-  Mexican;  also  known 
as  Black  Sugar  and  Slate  Siveet:  Ears  6  to  8 
inches  long  and  about  l^  inch  in  diameter, 
cylindrical,  tip  rarely  well   filled;   cob  white, 


LACK  MEXICAN. 


small,  8  rowed.  Kernels  slate-black,  broad, 
crinkled,  compactly  set,  tender  and  sweet  when 
ripe.  Plants  about  6  feet  tall.  A  medium 
early,  of  the  best  quality,  that  has  been  known 
for  many  years. 

Cory;  also  known  as  Earlj/  Cory,  Cory  Early 
Sugar,  Extra  Early  Cory,  La  Crosse,  Earliest 
Rockford  Market:  Ear  4  to  6  inches  long,  about 
l^inch  in  diameter,  cylindrical,  well  filled  at 
tip.  Kernels  whitish,  large,  broader  than  deep, 
crinkled  or  smooth.  Plants  small — about  five 
feet  tall.  One  of  the  very  earliest  varieties, 
ripening  in  about  55  days.  Quality  fair.  In- 
troduced in  1885  and  has  been  very  popular  as 
an  early  sort. 

3 


34  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

Croshy^s  Early;  also  Exira  Early  Crosby  and 
Crony's  Early  Twelve  Rowed:  Ears  6  to  7  inches 
long,  about  1|  inch  in  diameter,  slightly  pointed 
toward  tip,  12  rowed ;  cob  white.  Kernels  white, 
flatly  rounded,  crimped,  of  fine  quality.  Plant 
^  to  6  feet  tall.  Introduced  about  1860.  One 
of  the  best,  and  secd»nd  early. 

Egyptian;  also  known  as  Washington  Market: 
Ears  6  to  7  inches  long  and  about  If  inch  in 
diameter,  tapering,  12  to  16  rowed;  cob  medium 
size,  white.  Kernels  amber  colored,  deep,  broad, 
crimped  and  slightly  wrinkled,  sweet  and  ten- 
der, said  to  be  superior  for  canning.  Plant  tall 
and  prolific.     Late.    Introduced  about  1878. 

•  Ilickox;  also  Tlickox  Improved:  Ears  8  to  10 
inches  long  and  about  If  inch  in  diameter;  8  to 
12  rowed;  cob  white.  Kernels  whitish,  slightly 
rounded,  nearly  as  deep  as  broad,  large,  crimped, 
tender.  Plants  6  to  7  feet  tall.  A  favorite  late 
variety,  introduced  about  1883. 

Marhlehead;  or  Early  Marhlehead:  Ears  6  to 
6|  inches  long,  usually  larger  toward  butt,  about 
If  inch  in  diameter,  usually  eight  rowed;  cob 
reddish.  Kernels  broadly  rounded,  crinkled, 
red  or  reddish  flesh  color,  very  sweet.  Plant 
about  4A  feet  tall.  Introduced  about  1878,  and 
originated  by  selection  from  Narragansett, 
which  it  closely  resembles.  One  of  the  earliest 
varieties. 

Minnesota;   also   Early  Minnesota  or  Ford's 


VARIETIES   AND   THEIR   ADAPTATION. 


35 


Early:  Ears  5  to  6  inches  long,  H  inch  in  di- 
ameter, rather  blunt  at  tip,  eight  rowed"  cob 
white.  Kernels  large,  a  little  pointed,  rounded, 
crinkled,  closely  set  in.  Plant  about  4|  feet 
tall,  bearing  ears  about  10  inches  above  ground. 
Very  early.  Introduced  about  1874,  and  thought 
to  be  derived  from  the  Narragansett. 

Moore's  Early;  also  Moore's  Early  Concord, 
Moore's  Concord,  Early  Concord:  Ears  6  to  8  in- 
ches long,  IJ  to  2  inches  in  diameter,  rather 
pointed  toward  tip,  12  rowed;  cob  white.  Ker- 
nels white,  very  flatly  rounded,  not  closely  set 
on  dry  ear,  of  delicate  flavor.  Plant  6  to  11 
feet  tall,  bearing  ears  about  twelve  inches  from 


Fig.  13.— Marblehead. 


the -ground.  A  good  second  early.  Originated 
in  1865  by  J.  B.  Moore  of  Concord,  Mass.,  by 
crossing  Crosby's  Early  and  Burr's  Improved. 

Narragansetf;  also  Early  Narragansett:  Ears 
6  to  7  inches  long,  about  If  inch  in  diameter, 
cylindrical,  tip  round  pointed,   usually  eight 


36  INDIAN    CORN    CULTURE. 

rowed;  col)  reddish.  Kernels  vary  in  color 
from  light  flesh  to  dark  red.  Plants  grow  about 
five  feet  tall,  bearing  ears  8  to  14  inches  above 
ground.  A  standard,  early,  sweet,  desirable 
variety  that  has  been  grown  many  years,  being 
described  by  Burr  in  1865.* 

Ne  Plus  Ultra:  Ears  6  to  7  inches  long,  about 
If  inch  in  diameter  towards  butt  where  it  is 
strongly  rounded,  and  from  near  which  it  nota- 
bly tapers  to  the  tip;  irregularly  12  to  14  rowed; 
cob  white.  Kernels  white,  very  narrow  at  base, 
crimped  and  wrinkled,  thin  and  translucent, 
separating  readily  from  the  cob.  Plants  5  to  6 
feet  high,  bearing  ears  18  to  20  inches  above 
ground.  Late,  but  of  excellent  quality.  Intro- 
duced about  1882, 

Pee  and  Kay;  also  Western  Queen,  Maule's 
XX  Sugar:  Ears  6  to  8  inches  long.  If  to  2 
inches  in  diameter,  cob  white.  Kernels  white, 
flatly  rounded  over  the  top,  crinkled  or  crimped, 
thick,  nearly  as  deep  as  broad,  very  sweet. 
Plants  5  to  6  feet  high,  ears  16  to  18  inches 
above  ground.  Second  early.  Popular  with 
farmers  and  market  gardeners. 

StoivelVs  Evergreen:  Ears  7  to  8  inches  long, 
about  2^  inches  in  greatest  diameter,  often 
sharply  tapering,  and  then  again  nearly  cylin- 
drical, rarely  filled  at  tip,  16  rowed;  cob  white. 

*The  Field  and  Garden  Vegetables  of  America,  1865.  p. 
586. 


VARIETIES    AND   THEIR   ADAPTATION. 


37 


Kernels  white,  wrinkled,  narrow  and  deep, 
loose,  shedding  readily  from  the  dry  ear.  Plants 
7^  to  8  feet  tall,  bearing  ears  about  30  inches 
above  ground.  Foliage  abundant.  Late.  Very 
tender  and  sugary,  a  standard  of  first  qualitv. 
At  Polk's  cannery,  at  Greenwood,  Ind.,  the 
lai'i?est  establishment  of  its  kind  in  the  United 


Fig.  14.— Stowell's  evebgreen, 

States,  no  other  variety  of  sweet  corn  is  used. 
Has  been  grown  many  years,  and  is  referred  to 
by  Burr  in  1865." 

^quantum:  Ears  6  to  7  inches  long,  about  2 
inches  in  diameter  at  the  butt,  strongly  taper- 
ing to  a  tip  that  is  seldom  well  filled,  12  to  14 
rowed;  cob  white.  Kernels  white,  large, 
crimped,  nearly  as  broad  as  deep,  not  crowded. 

*  Field  aad  Garden  Vegetables. 


38  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

Plant  6  to  6A  feet  tall,  bearing  ears  about  24 
inches  above  ground.  Standard  medium  ma- 
turing.   Introduced  about  1883. 

Triumph:  Ears  8  to  9  inches  long,  about  U 
inch  in  diameter,  slender,  tapering  evenly  and 
strongly  in  the  lower  half,  8  and  10  rowed;  cob 
white.    Kernels  white,  large,  broadly  rounded, 


Fig.  15.— EGYPTIAN. 

almost  tiat,  very  frequently  quite  open  between 
the  pairs  of  rows,  crinkled  and  crimped.  Plant 
6  to  7  feet  tall,  bearing  ears  about  30  inches 
above  the  ground.    Introduced  in  1874. 

Sweet  corn  for  succession.— Mr.  E.  S.  Carman 
recommends"'''  the  following  as  the  best  kinds  of 
sweet  corn  for  succession.  For  first  early, 
either  Cory  or  Northern  Pedigree.  Next, 
Shakers'  Early,  Perry's  Hybrid  or  Stabler's 
Early.  Then  Moore's  Concord,  Triumph  or 
Hickox.  Last,  Stowell's  Evergreen,  Mammoth 
or  Egyptian. 

*  Rural  New  Yorker,  Feb.  25,  18S&. 


VARIETIES   AND   THEIR   ADAPTATION.  39 

Pop  varieties. — Egyptian;  also  White  Rice: 
Ears  4  to  7  inches  long  and  IJ  to  1^  inch  in 
diameter,  strongly  tapering,  many  rowed;  cob 
white.  Kernel  white,  large,  of  rice  form.  Plant 
about  5  feet  high,  bearing  ears  about  30  inches 
above  ground.    Productive. 

Dwarf  Golden  is  the  smallest  variety  of  corn 
grown,  the  plant  usually  being  about  18  inches 
high.  Sometimes  individual 
plants  produce  five  tiny  per- 
fect ears  to  a  stalk. 

New  England;  also  Non-  .^^  io^x> 
pareil:  Ear  6  to  8  inches  ^  ^^I 
long,  about  one  inch  in  di-  fig.  is.-dwarfgoldex. 
ameter,  eight  rowed ,  cob  white.  Kernels  glossy, 
rounded,  white  or  yellow  according  to  variety. 
Plants  5  to  6  feet  high,  bearing  ears  about  16 
inches  above  ground.  A  standard  variety,  ri- 
pening in  good  season  and  productive. 

Pearl:    Ears  4  to  5 
inches  long  and  |  to  1 
inch  in  diameter,  near- 
ly cylindrical,  14  to  18 
rowed;  cob  white.    Va- 
rieties occur  which  are 
white,    lemon,   red   or 
yJz,       FIG.  iT.-waiTE  PEARL,  purple.     Kemcls   fiat, 
much  compressed,  deeper  than  broad,  triangu- 
lar, very  flinty.    A  standard,  productive  variety 
which  has  been  known  for  many  years. 


40  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

Rice:  Ears  5  to  7  inches  long,  1^  to  If  inch 
in  cliametsr,  strongly  tapering,  14  to  20  rowed; 
cob  white.  Kernels  white  or  red,  pointed  into 
a  sort  of  short  spine  which  is  somewhat  erect. 
Plant  6  to  7  feet  high,  with  ear  3  to  5  feet  above 
ground.    Very  productive. 

Adaptability  of  varieties.  —  Some  varieties 
seem  particularly  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of 
conditions,  while  others  are  less  so.  A  few  va- 
rieties are  given  here,  as  having  been  grown  in 
the  States  in  which  they  are  listed,  and  with  a 
degree  of  success  such  as  will  justify  their  cul- 
ture. Most  of  the  tests  were  made  at  or  under 
the  supervision  of  an  agricultural  experiment 
station,  from  the  publications  of  which  much 
of  the  data  is  secured.  Where  the  information 
is  apparently  reliable  the  varieties  are  named 
f)-om  most  to  least  productive. 

AlahamU.  At  Uniontown:  Mosby's  Prolihc, 
Lee  County  Field,  Blount's  Prolific,  Head's 
Field,  Madison  County  Red,  Welborn's  Con- 
science, Lloyd's  Stock  and  Strawberry  yielded 
in  order  given  in  1890.  At  Auburn,  in  1891: 
Experiment  Station  Yellow,  Clayton  Bread, 
Lindsay's  Horsetooth  and  Hunnicutt.  Bulletin 
52  of  the  Alalmma  station  (January,  1894,)  rec- 
ommends Clark's  Early,  Mastodon  (yellow), 
Early  Eclipse  (yellow),  Gentry's  Early  Market 
(white),  and  Lnproved  Golden  Dent  as  the  best 
early  varieties. 


VARIETIES   AND   THEIR   ADAPTATION. 


41 


Arkansas.  At  Fayetteville:  Welborn's  Con- 
science, Common  Yellow,  Allen's  Mammoth, 
Mastodon  Yellow,  Golden  Dent,  Golden  Beauty 
and  Hickory  King.  (Bulletin  22,  December, 
1892,  Arkansas  experiment  station.) 

Colorado.  At  Fort  Collins:  Prof.  A.  E.  Blount 
says  in  bulletin  2,  Colorado  experiment  station, 
December,  18S7,  that  Pride  of  tlie  North  and 
Yellow  Flint  have  proved  most  valuable.  The 
former  is  the  best. 

Georgia.  At  Experiment:  Shannon's  Yellow, 
Ledl)etter,  Shaw's  Improved,  Shannon's  White, 
Southern  AVhite,  Huffman's,  Higgins',  Patter- 
son's, Tennessee  Yellow,  Peek's  Premium.  (Bul- 
letins 15  and  23  Georgia  experiment  station;) 

Indiana.  At  La  Fayette:  The  following  table 
gives  the  average  yield  of  varieties  tested  for 
live  years  at  the  experiment  station  at  Purdue 
University,  from  1888  to  1892  inclusive.  The 
1893  yield  was  so  badly  influenced  by  dry 
weather  as  to  be  unfit  for  comparison: 


VARIETY. 

Yield 
in  bu. 

Ave.  M. 
days  ma- 
ture. 

Per  cent, 
ears  to 
stalk. 

Color 
grain. 

Puvdue  Yellow 

White  Prolific 

Boone  Co.  White 

Riley's  Favorite 

69.3 
76.7 
72.3 
69.9 
61.7 
59.7 

112 
125 
126 
123 
115 
125 

51.4 

43. 

43.2 

47.7 
44.3 
43.1 

Yellow. 
White. 
White. 
Yellow. 
Yellow. 

Chester  Co.  Mammoth 

Yellow. 

The  following  are  tests  of  1892,  with  average 


42 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


yields  of  varieties  tested  more  than  one  year: 


Legal  Tendei" 

Golden  Beauty 

Piasa  Queen 

Mastodon 

Big  Buckeye 

Iroquois 

Haben's  Golden 

Hickory  King 

Red  Cob  Ensilage 

Southern  Red  Cob  

Burrill  &  Whitman 

Munn's  Early . . . 

Champaign  Co.  Prolific. 

Wisconsin  White 

Ivory  Dent 


Yield  per 

Days  to 

ave.  bu. 

mature. 

46.2 

105 

62. 

130 

74.5 

122 

53. 

117 

62.4 

119 

85.7 

118 

64.7 

117 

44.6 

131 

62.6 

129 

79. 

118 

73.2 

138 

64.1 

110 

68.9 

110 

43.8 

106 

86.2 

124 

Color 
grain. 


Yellow. 

Yellow. 

Yellow. 

Yellow. 

Yellow. 

Yellow. 

Yellow. 

White. 

White. 

White. 

White. 

Yellow. 

Yellow. 

White. 

White. 


Illinois.  At  Champaign:  The  following  table 
gives  the  results  of  five  years  up  to  and  includ- 
ing 1892.  The  season  of  1893  was  so  dry  that 
the  results  have  little  value  in  this  comparison. 
The  yield  is  of  air-dried  corn  in  bushels.  This 
table  is  from  Imlletin  25,  for  April,  1893,  of  the 
Illinois  experiment  station: 


VARIETY. 


Champion  AVhite  Pearl. . 

Learning 

Burr's  White 

Helm's  Improved 

Clark's  Iroquois 

Stewart's  Irapr'd  Yellow. 

Riley's  Favorite 

Fisk's  Yellow 

Legal  Tender 

Murdock 

Edmonds 


ISSS. 


70. 

86.6 

85.9 

84.8 

68.5 

91.2 

83.7 

76.6 

84.2 

80.3 

81.1 


JSS9. 


94.8 
80.6 
75.7 
102.6 
81.9 
68.7 
66.3 
79.5 
68.7 
65. 
66.1 


1S90. 

74.9 

69.4 

67.7 

51.1 

59. 

54.7 

55.9 

61.7 

60. 

61.6 

53.3 


1S91. 


76.5 

67.3 

67.7 

39. 

65.4 

58.4 

58.6 

57.4 

56.8 

59.8 

56.1 


65. 

70.1 

64.2 

79.2 

72.9 

74.4 

74.1 

60.1 

60.3 

57.6 

58.4 


Aver- 
age. 


76.2 

74.8 

72.2 

71.3 

69.5 

69.5 

67.7 

67.1 

66. 

64.9 


VAR*IETIES   AND   THEIR   ADAPTATION.  43 

In  comparing  the  average  yields  of  white  and 
yellow  varieties  for  1892,  the  white  yielded  66.3 
bu.  and  the  yellow  66.2  bu. — practically  the 
same. 

loica^'  Stouffer,  Iowa  Yellow  Dent,  Iowa 
White  Dent,  Pride  of  the  North,  Chester  Co. 
Mammoth,  Clark's  Early  Mastodon,  Leaming, 
Champion  White  Pearl,  Iowa  Gold  Mine. 

Kansas.  At  Manhattan:  ''In  a  comparison 
of  140  varieties,  the  following  10  gave  the  best 
yields,  in  the  order  named:  Mammoth  White 
Dent,  Hartman's  Early  White,  Silver's  Mam- 
moth Yellow,  Mammoth  Ivory  Dent,  North 
Star,  Piasa  Queen,  Leaming,  Pride  of  Kansas, 
Legal  Tender,  Large  Golden  Dent,  the  yields 
rpaiging  from  80  to  91.5  bu.  per  acre.  Those 
found  to  be  excellent  ensilage  varieties  were 
Hiawasse  Mammoth,  Little  Red  Cob,  Mosby's 
Prolific  and  Parish  White."  (Bulletin  30,  De- 
cember, 1891,  Kansas  agricultural  experiment 
station). 

Kentuclnj.  At  Lexington:  Mammoth  White 
Surprise,  Boone  Co.  White,  Runnell's  White, 
Golden  Beauty,  Munn's  Early,  Riley's  Favorite. 
All  these  are  recommended  by  "Rusticus"  in 
Ohio  Farmer,  Oct.  23,  1886. 

Louisiana.  At  Baton  Rouge:  Mosby's  Prolific^ 
McQuade's,  Golden  Dent  Gourd  Seed,  Young's 
Hybrid,  Blount's  Prolific,  White  St.  Charles, 


■  Orange  Jiidd  Farmer,  ]\Iareh  5,  1892. 


44  INDIAN  CORN  CULTURE. 

Learning,  Hickory  King,  Champion  White  Pearl. 
(Bulletin  7,  2ncl  ser.,  Louisiana  experiment 
station.)  At  Calhoun  (Northern  Louisiana): 
Calhoun  Red  Cob,  Mosby's  Prolific,  Welborn's 
Conscience,  Virginia  White  Gourd  Seed,  Mary- 
land White,  Brazilian  Flour,  Learning,  St. 
Charles'  Favorite  Dent,  Blount's  Prolific.  (Bul- 
letin 21,  Louisiana  experiment  station,  1893.) 

Mississippi.  At  Agricultural  College:  Mosby, 
Price,  Golden  Dent,  St.  Charles,  Eclipse.  (Bul- 
letin 33,  Mississippi  experiment  station,  1895.) 

Missouri.  At  Columbia:  Logan,  Chester  Co. 
Mammoth,  Riley's  Favorite,  Red  Cob  Gourd, 
Pride  of  the  North,  Golden  Beauty,  Golden 
Dent,  Piasa  King,  Blount's  Prolific,  Leaming, 
Hickory  King,  Farmers'  Favorite,  Queen  of  the 
Prairie.  (Bulletin  14,  Missouri  experiment 
station,  1891.) 

Nebraska.  At  Lincoln:  Riley's  Favorite.  Gold- 
en Beauty,  Mammoth  Cuban,  Brazilian  Flour, 
Early  California  and  White  Giant  Normandy 
Avere  the  best  yielders  of  the  field  corns.  Of 
the  sweet  varieties,  Cory  ripened  in  104  days, 
Honey  and  Breck's  Premier  in  111,  Moore's 
Early  Concord  in  114  and  Egyptian  and  Stowell's 
Evergreen  in  120  days.  (Bulletin  6,  March,  1889, 
Nebraska  experiment  station.) 

New  York.  At  Geneva:  Of  flints,  Waushakum, 
Longfellow,  Thoroughbred  White,  Common 
White,   CompLon's.     Of  dents^   Queen  of   the 


VARIETIES   AND   THEIR   ADAPTATION.  45 

Prairie,  Pride  of  the  North,  Learning,  Chester 
Co.  Mammoth,  Adams'  Early  and  Illinois  White. 

Ohio.  At  Columbus:  Learning,  Blount's  White 
Prolific,  Big  Buckeye,  Riley's  Favorite,  Ed- 
munds' Premium  Dent,  Pi'ide  of  the  North, 
Queen  of  the  Prairie,  Wisconsin  Yellow  Dent. 
(Bulletin  1,  Vol.  IV,  January,  1891.) 

Oregon.  At  Corvallis:  King  Philip,  Early 
Yellow  Canada,  Queen  of  the  North,  matured. 
Leaming,  Queen  of  Prairie,  Golden  Dent,  Ches- 
ter Co.  Mammoth,  Blount's  Prolific,  Thorough- 
bred White  Flint  and  Hickory  King,  did  not 
mature,  at  the  Oregon  experiment  station. 
(Bulletin  4,  January,  1890.) 

Pennsylvania.  At  State  College:  Of  flints 
Longfellow,  King  Philip,  Waushakum,  Im- 
proved Eight  Rowed  and  Canada.  Of  dents, 
Hickory  King,  Golden  Beauty,  Piasa  Queen, 
Golden  Dent,  Leaming,  Queen  of  the  Prairie, 
Pride  of  the  North.  (Annual  Report  Pennsyl- 
vania experiment  station,  1890.) 

Bhode  Isleind.  "Potter's  Excelsior  (or  Squan- 
tuin)  in  its  purity  is  the  best  table  corn  grown.'"*' 

South  Dakota.  At  Brookings:  Of  dents.  Gold 
Coin,  Queen  of  the  North,  Pride  of  the  North, 
Dakota  Dent,  Davis'  White  Dent,  Hughson's 
Dent,  Dakota  King,  Prince  Albert,  Minnesota 
King,  Loveland's.    Of  flints,  Smut  Nose,  Man- 

*J.  S.  Sprague,  Pro^-idence  Co.,  R.  I.,  in  New  England 
Homestead,  March  21,  1885. 


4G  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

dan  Indian,  Canada,  Squaw,  Pride  of  Dakota, 
Compton's  Ea^ly,  King  Philip. 

Tennessee.  At  Knoxville:  Of  dents,  Adams' 
Early  (for  table),  Golden  Beauty,  Maryland 
White  Gourd  Seed,  Shannon's  Big  Tennessee 
White,  Shannon's  Yellow,  Southern  Horse- 
tooth.  Shannon's  corn  succeeds  in  the  State 
quite  generally. 

Wisconsin.  At  Madison:  Of  13  varieties  of 
dent  tested,  "only  three  were  found  sufficiently 
early  to  depend  upon  for  a  general  crop,  viz.: 
Pride  of  the  North,  JSTorth  Star  Golden  Dent 
and  Queen  of  the  North."  Of  flints,  King 
Philip  and  Sibley's  White  Flint  are  best.  (Bul- 
letin 17,  November,  1888,  Wisconsin  experi- 
ment station.) 

Wyoming.  For  Northern  Wyoming,  Minne- 
sota King,  Pride  of  the  North,  Mandan,  Ninety 
Day  aud  Flint,  are  recommended  by  Joe  Harper 
of  Banner.  For  Northeastern  Wyoming,  Yellow 
Dent,  Pride  of  the  North,  Squaw  and  Mandan. 
For  Eastern  Wyoming,  Angel  of  Midnight, 
Early  Mastodon,  Pride  of  the  North  and 
Whitely  Dent.  (Bulletin  5,  February,  1892, 
Wyoming  experiment  station.) 

Canada.  Ottawa,  Ontario,  Canada,  is  too  far 
North  to  grow  corn  for  the  grain,  excepting  in 
a  limited  way.  Of  many  tests  made  at  the 
Central  Experimental  Farm,  but  few  passed  the 
milk  state,  and  in  many  cases  the  ears  were 


VARIETIES   AND   THEIR   ADAPTATION.  47 

scarcely  formed.  The  following  varieties 
ripened:  Flints,  Adams'  Extra  Early,  Golden 
Dew  Drop,  Mitchell's  Extra  Early,  Self  Husk- 
ing, King  Philip,  Angel  of  Midnight,  Canada 
Yellow,  Longfellow,  Landreth's  Early  Summer 
Yellow,  Pearce's  Prolific  and  Smut  Nose  nearly 
ripened.  Sweet,  Crosby,  Extra  Early  Cory 
Foi-d's  Early,  Marblehead  Earlj^,  Pee  and  Kay, 
and  Talbot's  First  and  Best;  Hickox,  Living- 
ston's Evergreen,  Landreth's  Early  Market, 
Northern  Pedigree  Sweet,  Potter's  Excelsior, 
Perry's  Hybrid  Early  and  Shaker's  Early  nearly 
ripened.  Tests  were  made  of  silage  corn,  and 
the  yields  per  acre  ranged  from  14  to  30  tons. 
The  following  are  recommended  by  Director 
Saunders,  as  the  most  productive  in  the  order 
named:  Thoroughbred  White  Flint,  Long 
White  Flint,  Long  Yellow  Flint,  Yellow  Dut- 
ton,  Large  White  Flint,  Pearce's  Prolific  and 
Longfellow.  Excepting  Long  White  Flint,  all 
matured  enough  to  make  excellent  silage. 
(Bull.  12,  Central  Experimental  Farm,  June,'91.) 
Richard  Gibson  of  Delaware,  Ont.,  highly  rec- 
ommends the  Butler  Co.  Dent.*  He  says:  "For 
the  silo,  it  grows  just  as  much  forage  in  propor- 
tion to  corn  as  is  profitable;  and  for  the  crib, 
more  bushels  of  shelled  corn  to  bushels  of  ears 
than  any  corn  I  have  yet  grown."  He  thinks 
it  superior  to  Longfellow  in  earliness  and  yield. 

*  Farmers'  Advocate^  May  15,  1895. 


48  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE  SEED. 

Upon  the  quality  of  the  seed  planted  in  a 
considerable  measure  depends  the  character  of 
the  crop.  Seed  to  be  good  should  be  speciall}^ 
selected  and  preserved  under  conditions  favor- 
a,ble  to  prompt,  strong  germination.  As  numer- 
ous factors  of  importance  relate  to  the  seed 
and  its  planting,  they  will  be  briefly  considered 
in  this  chapter  under  the  following  titles: 

Germination  temperature. 

Method  of  selecting  seed. 

Method  of  preserving  seed. 

Relative  value  of  butt,  center  and  tip 
kernels. 

Size  of  seed. 

Type  of  ear. 

Judging  corn:   a  scale  of  points. 

Germination  temperature.— Seeds  of  differ- 
ent classes  of  corn  do  not  germinate  with  equal 
rapidity  under  the  same  conditions.  Corn  from 
a  hot  climate,  such  as  the  soft  varieties,  will 
not  germinate  at  a,s  low  a  temperature  as  will 
that  grown  in  cooler  latitudes,  as  for  example, 
the  flints.     Sturtevant  made  an  extensive  study 


THE    SEED. 


49 


of  germination  temperatures  for  corn  at  the 
New  York  experiment  station.*  These  germi- 
nation tests  wei-e  conducted  in  boxes  where 
the  temperature  was  uniformly  under  control. 
Seeds  of  dent  corn  germinated  at  as  low  a  tem- 
perature as  43.4  deg.  F.,  after  233  hours,  prob- 
ably the  lowest  temperature  recorded  for  this 
seed  up  to  this  time.  In  reporting  upon  the 
general  results  of  his  trials  in  1884,  Sturtevant 
says:t 

"First,  all  the  kernels  of  an  ear  do  not  germinate  with 
equal  ease  or  with  the  same  increment  of  temperature; 
second,  that  there  is  a  difference  in  the  time  and  temperature 
required  between  some  of  the  agricultural  species  of  maize; 
third,  that  the  dent  corns  germinate  at  a  temperature  of 
47.6  deg.  F.,  or  slightly  below;  flints  at  a  temperature  of  47.8 
deg.  F.,  or  slightly  below;  pops  and  softs  ditto;  while  sweets 
required  48.5  deg.  F.,  or  slightly  below;  fourth,  that  the 
increment  of  temperature  required  in  our  trials  was  far 
greater  for  the  sweets  than  for  the  other  agricultural  species.' 

Under  the  same  conditions  of  temperature, 
the  dents  germinate  first,  flints  second,  pops 
and  softs  next  and  sweets  last,  the  range  being 
from  168, to  228  hours. 

As  observed  farther  on  in  the  chapter  on 
planting  a  soil  temperature  of  from  50  to  60  deg. 
F.,  will  justify  planting.  While  the  seed  may 
germinate  at  below  this,  the  chances  are  that 
it  will  decay,  or  the  young  plants  make  a  most 


*  New  York  agricultural  experiment  station.  Report  1884, 
p.  118,  and  report  1SS5,  p.  64. 
fmd.,VP-  123-124. 


50  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

unsatisfactory  growth.  It  would  not  even  be 
especially  advisable  to  plant  when  the  surface 
soil  has  a  temperature  of  50  deg.  F.,  unless  quite 
w^arni  weather  could  be  expected. 

Method  of  selecting  seed.— There  are  two 
common  methods  of  selecting  seed:  one  to  pick 
out  desirable  ears  in  the  crib,  the  other  to  select 
during  husking.  Either  method  is  better  than 
none  at  all,  but  the  best  plan  it  seejns  to  the 
writer  is  as  follows:  Select  a  number  of  ears 
of  the  most  desirable  type  and  plant  this  seed 
in  a  field  by  itself,  if  possible  where  the  plants 
from  it  will  not  be  impregnated  by  the  pollen 
from  other  corn.  Carefully  cut  out  all  inferior 
stalks  and  ears,  and  grow  only  selected  plants 
such  as  will  produce  the  best  ears.  From  these 
plants  select  the  seed  ears  to  repeat  the  oper- 
ation the  next  year,  thus  gradually  developing 
a  uniform,  high  type  ear  and  kernel.  This 
small  patch  of  corn  will  soon  become  available 
as  the  yearly  source  of  seed.  It  is  assumed,  of 
course,  that  the  person  who  adopts  this  mode 
of  selection  will  practice  the  best  of  culture. 
Where  this  system  is  intelligently  followed 
there  is  no  need  for  corn  to  deteriorate  in 
quality  from  year  to  year. 

Preserving  seed.— The  best  method  of  pre- 
serving seed  corn  knowai  to  the  writer  is  that 
l^racticed  by  Mr.  James  Riley  of  Boone  Co., 
Ind.    A  small  building  is  located  on  a  hillside, 


THE   SEED.  51 

SO  that  one  can  drive  up  to  the  end  of  it  on  a 
level  with  the  second  floor.  The  corn  is  un- 
loaded on  this  floor,  which  extends  the  length 
of  the  house.  This  only  serves  as  a  sort  of 
platform,  with  an  opening  entirely  along  each 
side  about  six  feet  wide,  which  is  the  top  of  the 
crib.  Below  this  floor  is  a  stove  near  the  cen- 
ter of  one  end  of  the  building,  with  pipe  run- 
ning the  length  of  the  house.  A  fire  is  kept  in 
this  stove  and  the  corn  placed  overhead  is 
thoroughly  dried,  after  which  it  is  shoveled 
into  the  cribs  on  each  side,  which  extend  to  the 
floor  below,  where  it  is  ready  for  sacking  and 
shipping.  The  most  favorable  conditions  for 
preserving  seed  are  thus  insured.  This  method 
can  be  practiced  on  a  smaller  scale  with  ease 
by  hanging  the  seed  corn  on  the  wall  of  a  room 
back  of  the  stove,  where  a  fire  is  kept  from  har- 
vesting to  planting  time.  The  seed  should  be 
kept  perfectly  dry,  and  selections  from  the  crib 
in  the  spring  may  be  unsatisfactory. 

The  old  method  of  braiding  a  number  of  ears 
together  at  husking  time  and  hanging  them  up 
on  the  side  of  the  barn  is  better  than  selecting 
from  the  crib  in  the  spring.  A  dry  attic  or 
inside  of  barn  is  a  better  place  than  the  out- 
side exposure.  At  Purdue  we  find  it  satisfac- 
tory to  put  seed  corn  on  the  ear  in  common 
brown  coffee  sacks,  which  are  hung  from  the 
vafters  to  cure,  away  from  rats  and  mice. 


52  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

Some  years  ago  I  collected  samples  of  seed 
corn  from  16  counties  in  Tennessee,  and  tested 
their  germination  quality.  The  vitality  of  the 
seed  was  strong.  Nearly  all  of  this  seed  was 
grown  by  men  wdio  took  ^Dains  to  keep  it  in 
dry,  well-ventilated  places.  There  was  no  es- 
sential difference  in  germination  between  ears 
stored  with  and  w^ithout  the  husk. 

In  an  article  on  "Seed  corn"*  Josiah  Russell 
of  Iowa  says:  "If  the  corn  is  not  ahsolufely  dry 
when  gathered  we  put  the  ears  for  seed  in  a 
plastered  upper  chamber  of  the  house  through 
which  a  stovepipe  goes  to  the  chimney,  or  we 
make  use  of  the  smoke  house.  In  either  case 
the  corn  is  laid  in  tiers  on  lath  nailed  to  2x4 
uprights,  one  row  of  corn  to  each  lath,  or  rather 
a  lath  at  each  end  of  the  corn  rows.  *  *  * 
It  takes  two,  laths  to  hold  one  row  of  ears 
side  by  side.  *  *  *  The  smoke-house  plan 
we  like  best  of  all,  and  think  the  smoke  we  put 
in  at  times  during  the  winter  renders  the  corn 
objectionable  to  the  ground  squirrels  in  the 
spring." 

The  relative  value  of  butt,  center  and  tip 
kernels  does,  not  materially  differ.  As  a  rule 
farmers  select  the  central  kernels  on  the  ears, 
rejecting  the  small  or  irregular  tip  and  butt  ker- 
nels. At  the  New  York  experiment  station  the 
writer  assisted  in  conducting  elaborate  experi- 

*l{ural  New  Yorlcer,  Aug.  25,  1888. 


THE   SEED. 


58 


ments  comparing  the  results  from  seed  from 
different  parts  of  the  ear.*  In  these  experi- 
ments, extending  from  1882  to  1885,  the  results 
slightly  favored  the  tip  kernels.  The  follow- 
ing table  gives  the  results: 

YIELD  PER  ACRE  IN  BUSHELS. 


1S82. 

1883. 

1884. 

1885. 

Average. 

Butt  seed.             

62.9 
62.5 
6i.7 

63.8 
54.5 
57.1 

54.7 
56.1 
56.3 

54.9 
57.6 
56.3 

56.6 

Central  seed  ... 

57.6 

Tip  seed 

58.6 

At  the  Ohio  experiment  station  the  average 
yields  per  acre  for  four  years  were,  butt,  66.9; 
central,  62.8,  and  tip  64.8  bu.  per  acre.f 

At  the  Kansas  station  the  relative  productive- 
ness was  first  from  tip,  second  from  butfc  and 
third  from  central  kernels.^ 

There  is  not  sufficient  evidence  at  hand  to 
justify  the  rejection  of  either  butt  or  tip  ker- 
nels, provided  they  are  of  good  vitality,  in 
favor  of  the  kernels  from  the  center  of  the  ear. 

The  size  of  the  seed  planted,  on  the  basis  of 
the  evidence  given  above,  would  not  seem  to 
play  any  special  part  in  productiveness  of  crop. 
If  the  size  did  affect  the  yield  we  should  expect 


*Ne\v  York  agricultural  experiment  station;  report  1884, 
p.  90,  1885,  p.  38. 

t  Ohio  agricultural  experiment  station.  Report  for  1886, 
p.  126. 

X  Kansas  agricultural  experiment  station.  Bulletin  45,  De- 
cember, 1893. 


54 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


the  large  central  kernels  on  the  ear  to  produce 
larger  crops  than  would  the  tip  kernels.  In  his 
experiments  Sturtevant  planted  selections  of 
largest  and  smallest  seed  from  ears  of  Wau- 
shakum  corn.'''  There  was  not  much  difference 
in  the  yield  from  seed  of  each  lot.  The  results 
were  as  follows: 


Nurahei  ears. 

Bushels  ears. 

Average 
weight  of 
ears  in  oz. 

Good. 

Poor. 

Good. 

Poor. 

Large  seed 

Small  seed 

14,360 
14,390 

1,630 
1,950 

69.7 
67.9 

2.1 
2.1 

6.21 
6.04 

The  selection  of  large  seed  would  tend  toward 
the  ultimate  production  of  a  larger  ear  and 
seed.  This  is  true,  as  based  on  the  general  law 
that  like  produces  like.  In  a  discussion  before 
the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Agricultural 
Science  "On  a  New  Factor  in  the  Improvement 
of  Crops,"  Dr.  J.  C.  Arthur  gave  it  as  a  general 
law  that  "large  seeds  produce  stronger  plants 
with  a  greater  capacity  for  reproduction  than 
small  seeds  of  the  same  kind."f  If,  however, 
the  best  method  of  selection  is  practiced,  as 
outlined  in  the  first  part  of  this  chapter,  it  will 
not  be  essential  to  cast  aside  the  small  kernels 
found  on  selected  ears. 

A  type  of  ear  should  alwaj^s  be  noted  in  the 

*New  York  State  agricultural  experiment  station,  report 
for  1885,  p.  42. 
t  Agricultural  Science,  VII,  VIII  and  IX,  p.  340. 


THE    SEED.  55 

crop  grown,  which  should  be  a  pronounced 
feature.  Coarseness  ought  to  be  avoided,  A 
very  large  cob  does  not  accompany  great  pro- 
ductiveness. The  ear  stalks  should  not  be  too 
large  and  long.    Prof.  Morrow  recommends:  * 

"For  Central  Illinois  a  comparatively  low,  short- join  ted, 
thickish  stalk,  with  the  ears  borne  low  on  short  shanks;  the 
ear  about  nine  inches  long,  2  to  2i  inches  in  diameter;  nearly 
uniform  in  thickness  throughout,  with  16  to  20  rows  well 
filled  out  at  each  end,  and  with  but  little  space  between  the 
rows;  the  kernels  rather  thick,  solid,  and  as  deep  as  may  be 
and  of  any  color  preferred,  as  this  has  little  to  do  with 
value." 

For  the  dent  corns  in  general  the  recom- 
mendation may  well  be  applied.  Mr.  A.  W. 
Cheever,  a  Massachusetts  farmer  of  wide  repu- 
tation, describes  his  ideal  ear  of  flint  corn  as 
follows:  t 

"Ear  not  much  lai'ger  at  butt  end  than  at  tip  end;  would 
avoid  corn  with  very  tapering  ears;  also  those  with  rows 
having  spaces  toward  the  butts.  The  corn  should  fill  the 
ear  full  all  over  and  be  crowded  hard  in  the  rows.  The  more 
kernels  to  the  inch  of  row  the  better." 

It  may  be  asserted  with  perfect  safety  that 
Cheever's  description  would  apply  equally  well 
to  sweet  corn.  The  number  of  rows  to  the  ear 
is  largely  a  matter  of  choice. 

As  a  rule,  a  desirable  type  for  all  varieties 
means  small  to  medium  size  of  cob,  cylindrical 
ears  well  covered  with  kernels  at  tip  and  butt, 

*  Farmers''  Review,  March  23,  1888. 
\Orange  Judd  Farmer,  Sept,  22,  1888= 


50  INDIAN    CORN   CULTURE. 

rows  compact,  with  no  wasted  spaces  between, 
and  kernels  deeper  than  bi-oad.  Early  maturity 
of  a  variety  is  also  quite  essential  in  the  North- 
ern States. 

Judging  corn:  A  scale  of  points.— If  corn 
exhibited  at  fairs  or  expositions  could  be  judged 
on  the  basis  of  a  scale  of  points,  it  would  no 
doubt  oftentimes  result  in  greater  justice  in 
decisions  of  judges.  This  of  course  applies  to 
a  consideration  of  the  individual  ear  only  and 
not  to  the  plant,  its  adaptability,  productive- 
ness, etc.  It  has  no  more  value  than  a  scale  of 
points  in  judging  butter,  where  the  breed  of 
cow  and  her  profitable  character  are  not  con- 
sidered. 

Yet  a  score  card  may  be  of  service.  In  18S6, 
in  the  great  corn  exhibit  at  the  Exposition  at 
Chicago,  the  five  expert  judges  worked  some 
days  in  preparing  a  scale  of  points  to  guide 
them  in  their  decisions.  Mr.  Orange  Judd,  who 
took  great  interest  in  the  Indian  corn  plant,  on 
the  basis  of  much  study  of  this  question  pub- 
lished the  following  scale  of  points  for  tempo- 
rary use  at  the  Illinois  State  fair  at  Peoria  in 
1891.*  It  is  here  reproduced  in  the  belief  that 
it  may  be  helpful  to  others  in  preparing  a  score 
card  to  be  used  for  a  similar  purpose: 

*  Orange  Judd  Farvier,  Oct.  10,  189],  and  Nov.  23,  1S93. 


THE   SEED.  57 

SCALE  OP  POINTS   FOR  INDIAN  CORN. 

Perfection. 

A.  Shape  of  ear 10  points. 

B.  Purity  or  trueness  to  type 10  points. 

C.  Filling-  out  at  both  ends 15  points. 

D.  Ripeness  (indicating  earliness) 10  points. 

E.  Perfection  and  uniformity  of  kernels 15  points. 

P.  Length  of  ear  (for  kind  and  locality) 5  points. 

G.  Circumference  of  ear  (for  kind  and  locality).. . .     5  points 

H.  Small  spaces  between  rows 5  points. 

J.   Depth  and  shape  of  kernels 15  points. 

K.  Per  cent  of  grain  and  cob 10  points. 

Total 100  points. 

This  scale  is  not  entirely  satisfactory.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  mark  point  B,  as  it  is 
assumed  that  the  judge  is  passing  on  a  variety, 
and  the  question  of  purity  he  could  not  answer. 
Point  D  is  also  a  weak  one,  as  the  earliness 
could  not  be  determined  by  the  degree  of  ripe- 
ness. In  judging  K  the  corn  should  be  per- 
fectly dry,  else  the  comparisons  would  not  be 
fair.  In  any  event,  such  a  score  card  could 
only  be  used  in  scoring  exhibits  on  a  mercan- 
tile basis,  and  not  a  variety  one.  Not  enough 
is  known  about  variety  characteristics  to  per- 
mit this  fairly. 

At  the  present  time  the  method  of  judging 
in  vogue  is  considered  unsatisfactory,  and  an 
effort  is  being  made  to  establish  the  use  of  the 
score  card.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  a  scale  of 
points  will  be  adopted  such  as  will  give  satis- 
lion  and  be  generally  used. 


58  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


CHAPTER   V. 


MANURES  AND  FERTILIZERS. 

Ifc  is  a  generally  recognized  fact  that  to  re- 
move a  crop  from  the  soil  is  to  take  from  it  a 
certain  amount  of  fertility  or  plant  food.  If 
this  practice  is  continued  without  returning 
this  food  in  some  form  to  the  soil  it  becomes 
much  impoverished  and  less  and  less  produc- 
tive. 

Fertilizers  necessary. — A  crop  of  50  bushels 
of  Indian  corn  and  8,000  lbs.  of  cornstalks  per 
acre  will  remove  from  the  soil  79.8  lbs.  nitro- 
gen, 55.2  lbs.  phosphoric  acid  and  87.6  lbs. 
potash.*  To  remove  such  a  crop  is  a  heavy 
drain  on  the  soil  fertility,  and  to  purchase  in 
the  markets  the  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash  removed  by  it  would 
cost  about  $20.  In  the  great  corn-growing 
region  of  the  country,  however,  a  large  amount 
of  land  is  annually  planted  which  contains  so 
much  available  plant  food  that  the  farmer 
does  not  feel  justified  in  placing  artificial  ferti- 

*  Science  in  Farming,  1882,  p.  153= 


MANURES   AND   FERTILIZERS.  59 

lizers  upon  it,  although  stable  manure  is  some- 
times used.  Deep,  black  prairie  soils  of  the 
new  West  do  not  as  yet  need  additional  plant 
food,  although  the  time  is  soon  comiug  when 
they  will.  Again  there  are  alluvial  river 
bottoms  subject  to  annual  overflows  which  so 
enrich  them  that  artificial  fertilization  is  un- 
necessary, for  such  bottoms  grow  large,  fine 
crops  of  corn  year  after  year.  In  the  Eastern, 
Middle,  and  Southern  States,  however,  soils 
have  become  impoverished  by  constant  crop- 
ping, and  each  year  enough  plant  food  should 
be  returned  to  them  to  keep  them  highly  pro- 
ductive. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  only  way  to  deter- 
mine certainly  what  manure  or  fertilizer  is 
best  suited  to  one's  land  is  to  experiment  on  it 
on  a  simple,  practical  basis. 

Stable  manure  is  always  a  standard  material 
for  enriching  the  land,  and  it  is  suited  to  the 
needs  of  all  classes  of  crops  and  all  kinds  of 
soils.  Its  effect  is  more  lasting  than  the  read- 
ily soluble  commercial  fertilizer.  Since  1883 
an  experiment  has  been  in  progress  at  the  ex- 
periment station  at  Purdue  University  to  de- 
termine how  long  stable  manure  will  continue 
to  affect  the  yield  of  succeeding  crops.  The 
plat  set  apart  for  this  experiment  has  been  pro- 
ducing corn  continuous!}^  since  1879.  To  cer- 
tain plats  in  the  series  fresh  horse  manure  was 


60  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

applied  in  1883  and  again  in  1884,  amounting 
for  the  two  years  to  about  50  tons  per  acre. 
No  manure  has  been  used  in  this  experiment 
before  or  since  the  two  years  named.  The  av- 
erage results  of  the  11  years  of  cropping  have 
shown  a  yearly  gain  of  10.42  bu.  of  corn  per 
acre  for  the  manured  plats  over  those  unma- 
nured. 

In  other  experiments  at  Purdue,  in  charge  of 
Prof.  Latta  who  conducted  the  preceding  one, 
fresh  horse  manure  has  always  given  greater 
returns  from  its  application  than  artificial  fer- 
tilizei's,  singly  or  in  combination.  Both  six 
and  nine  tons  of  the  manure  per  acre  gave 
larger  yields  than  where  fertilizers  were  used 
under  any  circumstances. 

At  the  Connecticut  station  for  four  years  a 
comparison  has  been  made  of  the  influence  of 
cow  manure,  hog  manure,  and  fertilizer-chem- 
icals upon  a  corn  crop  grown  continuously  on 
the  same  land.*  The  yields  from  plats  given 
cow  and  hog  manure  in  excess  of  the  exhaus- 
tion by  cropping  have  been  essentially  the  same 
during  the  four  years,  averaging,  however, 
slightly  in  favor  of  the  hog  manure.  The  fer- 
tilizer plat,  which  received  more  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash  than  the  crop  re- 
moved,  gave  about  four-fifths   as   much   dry 

*  Connecticut  State  agricultural  experiment  station.  Re- 
port for  1893,  p.  286. 


MANURES    AND   FERTILIZERS.  61 

matter  as  did  the  manured  plat,  while  the  un- 
maiiured  plat  gave  about  three-fifths  that  of 
the  manured.  A  liberal  manuring  increased 
the  albuminoids  in  the  crop;  in  the  Irernels 
there  was  a  marked  increase  in  the  protein 
and  nitrogen-free  extract. 

At  the  Missouri  station  barn-yard  manure 
(solid  and  liquid  together)  increased  the  yield.* 
At  the  Texas  station,  on  poor,  shallow,  upland 
"post  oak"  subsoil  of  stiff  clay,  cow  manure 
gave  most  profitable  returns,  though  bone  meal 
produced  the  largest  increase  in  yield, f 

Artificial  fertilizers  have  been  largely  used 
with  profit  in  this  country,  notably  South  and 
East.  It  would  be  useless,  however,  to  recom- 
mend to  the  farmer  the  use  of  anything  but  a 
complete  fertilizer  for  corn,  not  knowing  the 
soil  conditions  or  the  adaptability  of  a  given 
farm  to  this  cereal.  If  the  soil  is  deficient  in 
nitrogen,  potash  or  phosphoric  acid,  the  b^st 
way  to  do  Avill  be  to  try  some  special  fertilizers 
containing  these  ingredients,  and  so  determine 
just  what  the  land  needs  most.  It  will  be  safe, 
however,  unless  in  exceptional  circumstances, 
to  use  plenty  of  stable  manure  for  the  cornfield 
and  then  supplement  this  with  a  dressing  of 
fertilizer. 

*  Missouri  agricultural  experiment  station,  Bulletin  No. 

t  Texas  agricultural  experiment  station,  i^eport  for  1889, 
p.  11. 


62  INDIAN   COKN   CULTURE. 

Experiments  with  fertilizers.— It  is  inter- 
esting, however,  to  note  some  of  the  results 
from  using  fertilizers  experimentally  oh  corn. 
Much  of  this  work  has  been  done  with  great 
care,  and  may  be  suggestive,  if  not  having  a 
direct  application. 

In  1881  Prof.  W.  0.  Atwater,  in  an  address 
before  the  Connecticut  State  board  of  agricul- 
ture, reported  on  the  effects  of  fertilizing 
materials  upon  corn  grown  in  73  experiments 
on  sandy  or  sandy  loam  soil,  extending  over  the 
years  1878,  1879  and  1880.  In  these  experi- 
ments, "phosphoric  acid  took  the  leading  place 
often,  potash  occasionally,  and  nitrogen  very 
rarely."  Prof.  Atwater  considers  the  experi- 
ments numerous  and  decisive  enough  to  war- 
rant the  inference  that,  as  corn  is  commonly 
grown,  nitrogenous  fertilizers  in  any  quantitj'' 
would  rarely  be  profitable. 

For  several  years  past  fertilizer  experiments. 
on  corn  have  been  conducted  by  the  Storrs' 
(Connecticut)  experiment  station,  under  the 
direction  of  Prof.  C.  S.  Phelps.  "The  crops 
grown  on  light  soils  were  in  nearly  all  cases 
greatly  increased  by  the  use  of  potash  or  nitro- 
gen, or  both,  while  in  only  one  case  was  there 
any  considerable  increase  from  the  use  of  phos- 
phoric acid."  On  the  heavy  soils  phosphoric 
acid  gave  by  far  the  best  results.  "The  experi- 
ments thus  far  made  indicate  that  for  corn, 


MANURES   AND   FERTILIZERS,  63 

ou  the  lighter  soils  of  the  State,  fertilizers  con- 
taining a  large  proportion  of  potash  are  needed 
to  give  the  best  results,"  while  fertilizers  with 
relatively  large  proportions  of  phosphoric  acid 
produce  the  best  results  on  heavy,  clayey  soils.* 

At  the  Massachusetts  State  experiment  sta- 
tion for  souie  years  a  series  of  10  plats  of  one- 
tenth  acre  each  in  size  have  been  grown  to 
corn  and  treated  with  one  or  two  special  arti- 
cles of  plant  food,  or  else  left  un manured.  In 
1888  those  plats  receiving  a  dressing  in  which 
potash  was  the  dominant  ingredient  gave  ma- 
terially increased  yields  of  grain  over  the  nitro- 
gen plats,  though  a  combination  of  97  lbs.  of 
sulphate  of  potash  and  magnesia  and  100  lbs. 
of  dissolved  boneblack  gave  the  best  yield. 

In  experiments  conducted  over  the  State  of 
Massachusetts  in  10  different  counties^  by  Prof. 
W.  P.  Brooks'  of  the  agricultural  college,  while 
it  was  shown  that  soils  differ  widely  in  their 
requirements,  it  w^as  also  demonstrated  that 
potash  more  often  proves  beneficial  or  much 
more  largely  beneficial  than  either  nitrogen  or 
phosphoric  acid.f  Potash  as  a  rule  most  largely 
increases  the  yield  of  both  grain  and  stover, 
but  its  effect  upon  stover  production  is  greater 
than  upon  grain  production. 

*  Storrs'  agricultural  experiment  station.    Report  of  1892, 
p.  67. 
t  Experiment  Station  Record,  III,  p.  165. 


04:  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

At  the  Georgia  station  nitrogen  experiments 
were  couducted  upon  25  plats  of  3-40tli  acre 
each.  In  general  the  results  indicated  that 
"nitrogenous  manure  increased  the  yield  of 
corn  covered  b}^  the  experiments;  that  nitrogen 
alone,  regardless  of  the  source,  was  more  effec- 
tive in  increasing  the  yield  of  corn  than  either 
phosphoric  acid  or  potash,  or  both  combined; 
but  that  when  a  large  amount  of  fertilizer 
was  to  be  applied  to  corn  it  was  best  to  add  all 
three  of  the  elements.""  In  the  genei-al  ferti- 
lizer experiments  of  this  station  in  1893  nitro- 
gen Avas  the  most  effective  fertilizer  used,  and 
it  was  concluded  that  at  present  prices  of  com- 
mercial fertilizers  they  could  not  be  used  with 
profit.! 

At  the  Ohio  station  in  1890  and  1891  some 
increase  has  followed  the  use  of  nitrogen  in 
every  case,  but  in  1888  there  is  no  evidence 
that  nitrogen,  whether  used  alone  or  in  com- 
bination with  phosphoric  acid,  has  produced 
any  increase  in  crop  beyond  the  limits  of  prob- 
able variation  in  the  soil  itself.  "Experiments 
were  conducted  on  five  private  fai-ms  in  five 
counties,  in  which  it  was  shown  that  (1)  nitrate 
of  soda  in  combination  with  dissolved  bone- 
black  or  muriate  of  potash,  one  or  both,  has 

*  Georgia  agricultural  experiment  station,  Bulletin  15, 
December,  1891. 

t  Georgia  station,  Bulletin  23,  December,  1893. 


MANURES   AND   FERTILIZERS.  65 

produced  an  increase  of  crop  in  46  out  of  48 
trials;  and  (2)  in  no  case  has  tlie  increase  in 
crop  been  sufficient  to  pay  cost  of  fertilizer."  * 
This  work  is  supplemented  by  further  work 
along  the  same  line.f  Twenty-one  separate 
experiments  w-ere  made  on  soils  vaiying  widely 
in  character  and  located  in  different  parts  of 
the  State,  and  extending  over  at  least  six  years. 
As  a  result  of  this  work  Director  Thorne  con- 
cludes: 

"At  present  prices  of  cereal  crops  and  of  fertilizing  ma- 
terials, respectively,  the  profitable  production  of  corn,  wheat 
and  oats  upon  chemical  or  commercial  fertilizers,  or  upon 
bai'n-yard  manure,  if  its  cost  be  proportionate  to  that  of  the 
chemical  constituents  of  fertility  found  in  commercial  fer- 
tilizers, is  a  hopeless  undertaking-,  unless  these  crops  be 
grown  in  a  systematic  rotation  with  clover  or  a  similar 
nitrogen-storing  crop;  and  the  poorer  the  soil  in  natural  fer- 
tility the  smaller  the  probability  of  profitable  crop  produc- 
tion by  means  of  artificial  fertilizers." 

At  the  Kentucky  station,  on  land  rich  in 
phosphoric  acid,  a  mixture  of  muriate  of  potash 
and  nitrate  of  soda  in  the  proportion  of  one 
part  of  the  former  to  two  of  the  latter  gave  the 
best  yields  of  grain,  viz.:  an  increase  of  39 
bushels  per  acre  over  where  no  fertilizer  w^as 
applied.  Coml)inations  of  nitrogen  and  phos- 
phoric acid,  or  single  applications  of  either, 
gave  practically  a  less  yield  than  where  no 

*Ohio  agricultural  experiment  station,  Bulletin  3,  Vol.  V, 
March,  1892. 

\IUd.,  Bulletin  53,  March  1894. 
5 


66  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

fertilizer  was  applied,  while  combinations  of 
potash  and  nitrogen,  or  potash  alone,  gave  good 
yields.* 

At  the  Virginia  station  phosphoric  acid  gen- 
erally increased  the  yield.  A  full  application 
of  this  cost  but  one-half  as  much  as  the  potash 
and  one-sixth  as  much  as  the  nitrogen.f  Fur- 
ther, where  phosphoric  acid  was  applied  there 
was  a  larger  j)roportion  of  the  corn  to  fodder 
than  in  the  other  yields.  In  no  instance  did 
the  nitrogen  application  give  a  gain  equal  to 
its  cost. 

The  Rhode  Island  station,  on  the  basis  of 
several  experiments,  advises  the  use  of  about 
45  lbs.  nitrogen,  75  lbs.  potash  and  54  lbs.  phos- 
phoric acid  per  acre.  J 

Summary  of  experiments. — A  careful  ex- 
amination of  the  experiments  in  supplying  fer- 
tility to  the  corn  crop  conducted  by  the  differ- 
ent agricultural  experiment  stations  shows, 
as  might  have  been  expected,  much  difference 
in  the  results  secured.  Wherever  used  stable 
or  barn-yard  manure  was  productive  of  good 
results.  Combinations  of  nitrogen,  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid  gave    satisfactory    yields    in 

*  Kentucky  agricultural  experiment  station.  Bulletin  No. 
33. 

t  Virginia  agricultural  experiment  station.  Bulletin  .31. 
August,  1893. 

J  Handbook  of  experiment  station  work.  Washington. 
1893,  p.  S6. 


MANURES   AND   FERTILIZERS.  67 

many  cases,  but  generally  the  cost  of  these  was 
too  much  to  make  their  use  profitable.  The 
value  of  phosphoric  acid  was  especially  shown 
in  tests  in  Alabama,  Louisiana,  Pennsylvania 
and  Vermont;  that  of  nitrogen  in  Georgia, 
Massachusetts  (local),  New  York  and  North 
Louisiana;  that  of  potash  in  Kentucky,  New 
Hampshire,  New  Jersey  and  Massachusetts 
(general). 

Cotton  seed  crushed,  or  cotton-seed  meal  is 
generally  considered  to  be  a  most  desirable 
nitrogen  fertilizer.  This  used  singly  or  in  con- 
nection with  artificial  fertilizer  is  recommended 
for  the  corn  crop.  The  meal  may  be  sowed 
broadcast  before  XDlanting  and  harrowed  in, 
while  the  crushed  seeds  may  be  plowed  under, 
as  with  stable  manure.  However,  it  would  be 
better  husbandry  to  feed  the  cotton  seed  or 
meal  to  live  stock  and  use  the  manure,  which 
will  contain  about  all  the  fertility  of  the  orig- 
inal grain. 

Sea  weeds,  fish  scrap  or  dead  fish,  night 
soil  and  other  substances  are  used  for  manur- 
ing corn  lands  in  a  limited  way.  Refuse  fish 
makes  a  good  nitrogenous  manure,  and  along 
the  coast  in  places  is  extensively  used. 

Green  manure  offers  a  valuable  means  of 
improving  the  soil  for  corn-growing  in  localities 
where  the  land  has  been  long  cultivated.  This 
is  for  the  reason  that  those  crops  best  adapted 


68  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

for  this  purpose,  such  as  the  clovers  in  the 
North  and  the  cowpea  in  the  South,  increase 
the  soil  fertility  by  returning  to  it  additional 
plant  food  secured  from  the  atmosphere  or  soil. 
The  clover  plant,  it  has  been  demonstrated, 
adds  materially  to  the  fertility  of  the  surface 
soil  by  securing  nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere 
and  holding  it,  and  also  by  absorbing  and  hold- 
ing nitric  acid  from  below  the  cultivated  sur- 
face, so  that  clover  iDlowed  under  decidedly 
increases  soil  fertility.  In  the  Southern  States 
the  cowpea  plowed  under  is  a  recognized  reno- 
vator of  -woi-n-out  lands. 

According  to  Sir  J.B.Lawes,"  "the  leguminous 
(clovers,  peas,  beans,  etc)  are  the  only  plants 
which  can  be  said  distinctly  to  enrich  the  sur- 
face soil  when  plowed  in,  and  I  may  mention 
that  in  a  case  where  a  crop  of  red  clover  was 
grown  by  us,  and  twice  mown  for  hay,  the  in- 
crease of  nitrogen  in  the  surface  soil  was  suffi- 
cient to  be  measurable  by  analysis  when  com- 
pared with  another  part  of  the  field  where  the 
grain  crop  was  grown." 

Green  manure  is  especially  valuable  on  light 
soils  or  heavy  impoverished  clay  land.  The 
crop  should  be  plowed  in  at  about  the  time  of 
well-advanced  bloom,  before  seed  formation. 

The  plowing  under  of  sod  or  stubble  is  in  a 
measure  a  form  of  green  manuring,  for  much 

*  The  Country  Gentleman,  March  12,  1885. 


MANURES   AND   FERTILIZERS.  69 

sod  land  is  plowed  after  the  green  growth  has 
got  well  started.  Those  persons  who  have 
grown  a  crop  of  corn  on  land  in  clover  or 
timothy  the  previous  season  have  noted  the  in- 
creased yields  from  It,  if  the  weather  conditions 
were  satisfactory  and  the  tillage  good. 

The  manurial  value  of  feeding  stuffs,  as 
indicated  by  the  amount  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash  i^resent,  is  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table,  abstracted  from  a  more  complete 
table  published  by  Dr.  E.  H.  Jenkins,  chemist 
of  the  Connecticut  agricultural  experiment 
station.*  The  nitrogen  is  estimated  at  17  cents, 
the  phosphoric  acid  6  cents  and  the  potash  at 
4i  cents  per  pound.  The  prices  for  these  sub- 
stances, however,  varies  from  time  to  time 
according  to  market  supply  and  demand: 

AVERAGE  NUMBER  POUNDS  NITROGEN,  PHOSPHORIC  ACID 
AND  POTASH  IN  ONE  TON  AMERICAN  FEEDING  STUFFS, 
AND  VALUE  PER  TON  FOR  MANURE  OF  SUCH  FOODS. 

PllOS. 

^  /•    7  1  Nitro-  phoric 

Green  JOdaer.  gen.  aclcl.  Polas/i.       Valve. 

Maize  fodder 4  8  2.2  7.8  $1.28 

Maize  silage 4.8  2.2  7.0  1.25 

Rye  fodder 8.4  4.8  12.6  2.23 

Sorghum 4.0  1.1  3.7  .91 

Clover 13.0  2.6  13.0  2.93 

Cowpea  vines 8.6  3.4  6.0  1.92 

Dry  fodder. 

Clover 36.6  13.2  14.0  8.88 

Meadow  hay 38.2  8.6  52.0  8.37 

Timothy 19.2  7.2  29.6  4.95 

Cornstalks 13.2  7.8  17  2  3.44 

*  New  England  Homestead,  Dec.  25,  1886,  p.  457. 


70  INDIAN   CORN    CULTURE. 


Dry  fodder.  ^T 

Buckwheat  straw 12.4 

Oat  straw 10.8 

Rye  sti^aw 14.6 

Wheat  straw 16.0 

Cowpea  vines 50.2 

Roots. 

Carrots •. 4.0 

Sugar  beets 5.8 

Globe  mangolds 5.4 

Grain  and  other  seeds. 

Barley 39.6 

Buckwheat 32.0 

Cotton  seed  kernels 09 . 6 

Cowpea  seed 66.4 

Indian  corn 33.8 

Oats 36.2 

Rye 34.0 

Wheat 38.0 

Mill  2'>')'oducts,  hy-imiducis  and  refuse. 

Malt  sprouts 73.4 

Cotton  seed_  meal 134.6 

Linseed  meal 106.0 

Indian  corn  meal 29.0 

Indian  corn  bran 22.2 

Indian  corn  and  cob  meal.  22.9 

Indian  corn  cob 8.0 

Hominy  mesl 30.8 

Gxuten  meal 94.8 

Rye  bran 48 . 8 

Wheat  middlings 41 .4 

Wheat  bran 47 . 4 


plioric 

actd. 

I'olash. 

Value. 

12.3 

42.2 

$4.64 

5.6 

32.6 

3.56 

7.4 

20.2 

3.66 

4.2 

17.4 

3.71 

8.2 

28.0 

9.91 

2.2 

6.0 

1.06 

0.6 

3.6 

1.15 

0.4 

9.0 

1.32 

13.4 

7.6 

7.76 

15.6 

11.8 

6.88 

34.4 

22.8 

19.96 

20.2 

20.2 

13.36 

14.2 

8.0 

6.94 

16.0 

11.6 

7.61 

16.0 

10.6 

7.19 

18.4 

10.2 

8.00 

29.2 

33.0 

15.63 

60.6 

35.8 

28.04 

38.8 

28.2 

21.55 

12.8 

8.0 

6.04 

9.8 

9.4 

4.76 

10.9 

9.2 

4.96 

4.4 

14.0 

2.22 

23.9 

12.3 

7.20 

9.0 

12 

16.71 

27.8 

18.0 

9.83 

25.2 

13.4 

9.11 

60.2 

32.0 

13.03 

TILLAGE. 


71 


CHAPTER  VI. 


TILLAGE. 

The  subject  of  tillage  includes  plowing,  har- 
rowing, and  cultivating,  and  each  will  be  con- 
sidered by  itself  in  the  order  given.  It  may  be 
accepted  as  true  that  as  a  rule  the  more  thor- 
oughly the  soil  is  prepared  before  planting  the 
more  satisfactory  will  be  the  crop  returns.  Too 
many  farmers  plow,  harrow,  and  cultivate  in- 
differently. The  ground  should  be  thoroughly 
pulverized  before  the  seed  is  planted.  This 
cannot  be  unless  the  plow  is  held  back  until 
the  ground  is  in  shape  to  handle  reasonably 
well  with  both  plow  and  harrow. 

Plowing.— For  three  successive  years  an  ex- 
periment has  been  continued  at  the  Indiana 
experiment  station  on  deep  and  shallow  plow- 
ing for  corn.  The  soil  is  a  dark,  compact  loam, 
with  a  deep  layer  of  gravel  about  two  feet  be- 
low the  surface.  The  usual  practice  at  the 
station  is  for  corn  to  follow  on  clover  stubble, 
which  is  plowed  in  the  spring  after  the  clover 
has  started  growth.  This  corn  was  grown  on 
plats  permanently  located  for  that  work,  which 


72 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


is  to  continue  for  a  term  of  years.  Where  the 
plowing  was  10  and  12  inches  deep  a  subsoil 
plow  followed  after  the  common  plow  and 
loosened  to  the  necessary  depth.  The  results 
of  this  work,  as  given  by  Prof.  W.  C,  Latta," 
are  as  follows: 

BUSHELS  PER  ACRE  FROM  DEEP  AND  SHALLOW  PLOWING. 


Depth  of  plowing. 

1S91. 

1S92. 

1S93. 

Average  of 
3  years. 

49.3 
49.1 
49.8 
49.6 
46.7 

52.9 
58.9 
60.0 
59.7 
61.4 

16.1 
13.6 
17.1 
17.0 
17.5 

39.48 

40.54 

42.28 

10  inches 

41.76 

12  inches 

42.01 

Excessive  drouth  in  1893  accounts  for  the  low 
yields  of  that  year.  The  deeper  plowings  gave 
the  best  returns,  with  that  of  eight  inches 
slightly  in  the  lead. 

According  to  the  tenth  census  of  the  United 
States,!  on  the  basis  of  the  question,  "How 
deep  is  the  soil  usually  plowed  for  corn?"  the 
great  majority  of  the  answers  from  the  leading 
corn-producing  States  were  from  six  to  eight 
inches,  some  being  as  low  as  five  and  a  very 
few  as  high  as  nine.  In  a  further  consider- 
ation of  this  subject  Prof.  Brewer  says: J    "In 

*  Bulletin  50,  Vol.  V,  Purdue  University  agricultural  ex- 
periment station,  April,  1894. 

t  Tenth  Census  of  the  United  States.  Report  of  the  Pro- 
ductions of  Agriculture,  Washington,  1883,  p.  98, 

I  lUd. 


TILLAGE.  73 

States  of  gravelly  or  loamy  soils,  where  the 
yield  is  rarely  high  but  is  rather  certain,  and 
where  corn  follows  clover,  it  is  the  custom 
with  many  excellent  farmers  in  planting  on 
such  sod  to  plow  shallow,  not  more  than  three, 
three  and  one-half  or  four  inches  deep,  but  in 
the  after-cultivation  to  idIow  the  corn  in  sum- 
mer very  deep."  On  heavy,  cold  sod  land, 
plowing  a  depth  of  five  to  six  inches  will  no 
doubt  be  more  satisfactory  than  at  a  greater 
one.  On  light,  easily  broken  soil,  the  plow 
may  run  deeper  to  advantage.  Under  circum- 
stances where  drouth  may  occur  somewhat 
better  results  may  be  looked  for  from  the  deep 
plowing. 

Harrowing.  —  Having  the  land  properly 
plowed,  it  should  be  reduced  to  a  fine  tilth  by 
the  use  of  the  harrow.  On  sod  land  a  disk  or 
cutaway  harrow  can  be  most  efficiently  used  to 
tear  and  pulverize  the  overturned  turf.  This 
may  be  followed  by  a  smoothing  harrow  that 
will  prepare  a  smooth,  fine  seed  bed.  If  lumps 
or  clods  occur  that  do  not  easily  break  under 
the  harrow  they  should  he  broken  either  with 
a  roller  or  plank  drag.  Three  oak  planks,  each 
about  six  feet  long,  ten  inches  wide  and  two 
inches  thick,  chained  on  lap  edges  like  weather 
boarding,  and  drawn  broadside  over  the  field, 
will  rapidly  crush  obnoxious  clods. 

Cultivating.— Even  l^efore  the  corn    plant 


74 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


has  appeared  above  the  surface  it  may  be  de- 
sirable to  cultivate  (or  lightly  harrow),  espe- 
cially if  warm  rains  have  occurred  and  the 
weeds  are  vegetating  fast.     Too  much  stress 


cannot  be  laid  upon  clean,  thorough  cultiva- 
tion of  the  growing  crop.  The  soil  should  be 
kept  well  stirred  in  time  of  drouth,  and  at  all 
times  frequently  enough  to  keep  the  weeds  in 


TILLAGE. 


75 


subjection.    The  farmer  cannot  afford  to  grow 
a  crop  of  weeds  on  the  land  with  his  corn,  for 


i 


not  only  will  they  feed  on  the  food  which  the 
corn  should  eat,  but  they  will  pump  off  needed 
soil  moisture  in  time  of  drouth  and  interfere 


76 


INDIAN    CORN    CULTURE. 


with  the  economical  handling  of  the  crop  at 
harvest. 

The  frequency  of  cultivation  will  mainly 
depend   upon  the  conditions  of  soil    moisture 


and  weed  growth.    If  drouth  prevails  stirring 
the  soil  will  conserve  its  moisture.    If  weeds 


TILLAGE. 


77 


occur  they  should  be  eradicated.  For  five 
years  Prof.  G.  E.  Morrow  conducted  a  series  of 
experiments  at  the  Illinois  experiment  station 
upon  the  influence  of  frequency  of  cultivation 
upon  the  corn  crop.  The  average  results  for 
the  five  years  ending  1893  are  as  follows:* 

Kind  of  cultivation.  Yield  in  busliels. 

Not  cultivated;  scraped  with  lioe  (two  plats) 68.3 

Shallow,  ordinarily  frequent 70.3 

Deep,  ordinarily  frequent 66.7 

Shallow,  frequent 72.8 

Deep,  frequent 64.5 

Tha general  results  thus  favor  frequent  shal- 
low cultivation,  though  the  increased  yield  will 
warrant  the  employment  of  but  little  extra 
time  over  that  of  ordinary  frequency. 

At  Purdue  University  we  ordinarily  plan  for 
at  least  five  cultivations  during  the  season. 

At  the  Kansas  experiment  station  quite  a 
number  of  plats  of  corn  have  been  submitted 
to  frequent  cultivation  tests.  The  average  re- 
sults of  three  years'  trials,  as  given  by  Prof.  C. 
C.  (jeorgeson,  are  as  follows.f 


Times  cultivated. 

Times  cultivated  during  season. 

Yield  in 

1S91. 

1S93. 

1S93. 

bushels. 

Twice  a  week 

Once  a  week 

Once  in  two  weeks. 

9 
6 

11 

6 
3 

14 

7 
4 

40.3 
41.3 
40.9 

*  Bulletin  No.  31,  March,  1894,  Illinois  agricultui^al  experi- 
ment station,  p.  355. 

t  Bulletin  45,  December,  1893,  Kansas  agricultural  experi- 
ment station,  p.  131. 


78 


INDIAN  CORN   CULTURE. 


There  is  no  gain  found  in  frequent  cultiva- 
tion, but  instead  a  slight  loss.  This  loss  may 
be  due  to  excessive  root-pruning.  Where  corn 
was  cultivated,  however,  once  in  three  and 
once  in  four  weeks  a  material  loss  in  yield  oc- 
curred.   It  would  appear  that  three  to  four 


Fig.  21.— Standard  KiDiNO  Cl'ltivator  With  Six  shovels. 

cultivations  a  season,  according  to  circum- 
stances, might  be  recommended  as  a  general 
rule. 

Depth  of  cultivation  should  be  shallow 
rather  than  deep.  The  roots  of  the  corn  plant, 
while  penetrating  several  feet  below  the  top  of 
the  ground,  are  essentially  surface  feeders.    At 


TILLAGE. 


79 


a  depth  of  three  inches  for  a  radius  of  two  feet 
about  the  plant  may  be  found  a  great  number 


of  fine  roots.  It  is  not  desirable  to  cut  these 
roots  more  than  possible,  consequent!}^  the  cul- 
tivation must  necessarily  be  shallow. 


so 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


At  the  Purdue  University  experiment  station 
Prof.  Latta  has  found  the  average  results  of 
cultivating  corn  for  six  years,  at  depths  of  one, 
two,  and  three  inches,  to  have  been  decidedly 
in  favor  of  shallow  culture,  the  average  yields 
being  5 LOG  bu.  for  one  inch,  50.09  for  two,  and 
48.73  bu.  for  three  inches.-'  By  referring  back 
to  the  report  on  frequency  of  cultivation  at  the 
Uliuois  station  it  will  bo  noted  that  the  shallow 
gave  an  increase  of  four  Imshels  per  acre  over 
that  of  the  deep  in  l)oth  ordinary  and  frequent 


cultivation.  Figs.  22,  23  and  24  show  three  in- 
teresting forms  of  cnlivators  specially  made  for 
shallow  culture. 

The  root-pruning  of  corn  directly  beais 
upon  the  subject  of  depth  of  cultivation.  Some 
years  ago  attention  was  directed  to  this  subject. 
In  1882,  at  the  New  York  experiment  station, 
root-pruning  of  corn  was  compared  with  that 
not  root-pruned,  by  Dr.  E.  L.  Sturtevant,  with 

*  Bulletin  50,  Vol.  V,  April,  1894,  Purdue  University  agri- 
cultural experiment  station,  p.  48. 


TILLAGE. 


81 


contradictory  results.'''     This  work  was  carried 
on  more  extensively  in  1883,  and  the  pruning 


Ava 


,s  found  to  be  detrimental  to  the  plant  and 


*New  York  agricultural  experiment  station.     Report  for 
1882,  p.  53.    • 
6 


82  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

yield.""  Of  seven  comparisons  all  but  one  were 
very  much  adverse  to  pruning. 

At  the  Minnesota  station  Prof.  W.  M.  Hays 
found-}-  that  the  root-pruned  plats  averaged 
nearly  three  bushels  of  corn  and  800  lbs,  of 
fodder  less  x^er  acre  than  the  plats  not  root- 
pruned.  Another  year  root-pruning  was  found 
to  diminish  the  yield  of  grain  13A  bushels  per 
acre. 

A  number  of  years  of  comparison  of  root- 
pruned  with  unpruned  corn  at  the  Illinois  sta- 
tion, by  Prof.  Gr.  E.  Morrow,  has  shown  a  gen- 
eral injury  from  the  root-pruning.  J  In  1893 
the  yield  per  acre  was  100.3  bu.  for  the  un- 
pruned as  against  78.8  bu.  for  the  pruned— a 
very  material  difference. 

The  above  results  show  the  necessity  for 
shallow  cultivation  and  the  injurious  results  of 
breaking  off  the  surface  corn  roots.  Set  the 
cultivator  so  that  the  teeth  will  run  shallow. 
The  weeds  may  be  easily  destroj^ed  by  cultivat- 
ing at  a  depth  of  about  an  inch  if  the  w^ork  is 
done  in  reasonable  season. 


*  New  York  agricultural  experiment  station.  Report  for 
1883,  p.  134. 

t  Bulletins  Nos.  6  and  11,  Minnesota  agricultural  experi- 
ment station. 

I  Bulletin  No.  31,  March,  1894,  Illinois  agricultural  exper- 
iment station,  p.  357. 


PLANTING. 


83 


CHAPTER   VII. 


PLANTma. 

In  planting  a  seed  numerous  factors  must  be 
considered  as  having  an  important  bearing  on 
the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  crop.  These 
factors  will  be  considered  under  the  following 
headings: 

Time  of  planting. 

Rate  or  distance  apart  of  planting. 

Drills  vs.  hills. 

Depth  of  planting. 

Listing. 

Time  of  planting. — Necessarily  two  impor- 
tant conditions  influence  the  date  of  planting 
corn,  viz.:  geographical  location  and  tempera- 
ture of  soil.  Brewer  says*  that  the  most  com- 
mon rule  observed  as  to  time  of  planting  is 
that  derived  from  the  Indians  on  the  settle- 
ment of.  New  England  and  the  Middle  States, 
to  "plant  corn  when  the  leaves  of  the  white 
oak  are  as  big  as  a  squirrel's  foot,"  or  as 
another  saying  states  it,  "as  big  as  a  squirrel's 

*  Tenth  Census.  Report  on  the  Productions  of  Agricul- 
ture, Washington,  1883,  p.  98. 


84 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


foot  or  mouse's  ear."  There  is  considerable 
significance  in  this  in  fact,  as  the  oak  is  tardy 
in  showing  its  leaves  until 
the  ground  has  had  its  spring 
warming.  Corn  not  only  re- 
quires a  warm  air  tempera- 
ture to  grow  well  in,  but 
the  soil  must  be  reasonably 
warm.  A  temperature  of 
the  soil  to  a  depth  of  one 
inch  of  fi-om  50  to  60  deg. 
Fahr.  will  justify  planting. 
In  the  great  corn  belt  plant- 
ing begins  about  May  1  and 
often  extends  over  the  en- 
tire month.  If  the  ground 
is  ready  it  is  not  wise  to 
hurry  the  seed  into  the 
ground  too  soon,  as  the  vi- 
tality of  the  seed  or  young 
plant  may  be  seriously  im- 
paired by  being  exposed  to 
cold  rains  which  often  fol-  """^~ 
low  stretches  of  w^arm  April 
weather.  The  fo  llowing  ^^" 
table  show^s  the  results  of 
early  and  late  planting  con- 
ducted by  Prof.  Latta  at  the  Purdue  University 
experiment  station*     The  experiment  began 

*  Bulletin  No.  50,  p.  45,  Purdue  University  agricultural 
esperiment  etatioru 


PLANTING.  85 

in  1888,  and  excepting  1891  has  been  continued 
ever  since.  The  yields  for  May  1  and  May 
28-30  are  averages  for  four  years;  those  for 
May  15-16  for  three  j^ears;  the  others  for  five: 

Date  pZajiied.  Yield  in  bushels. 

Ma^l 4G.64 

May  8-11 45.56 

May  15-16 36.18 

May  21-22 41.41 

May  28-30 35.75 

At  the  Illinois  experiment  station  Prof.  Mor- 
row found,*  as  the  average  of  six  years'  work, 


Fig.  26.— FARMERS'  Favorite  one-Hohse  corn  Drill. 

the  largest  yield  (62.3  bu.)  to  come  from  corn 
planted  from  May  4  to  9,  although  there  is  but 
a  slight  falling  off  below  these  dates  for  plant- 
ings ranging  from  April  27  to  May  2  and  May 
11  to  16. 
At  the  Ohio  station  the  largest  yields  are 

*  Bulletin  31,   Illinois  agricultural    experiment  station, 
March,  1894,  p.  352, 


86  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

given  from  plantings  made  from  May  13  to 
15.* 

In  the  Southern  States  planting  begins  sev- 
eral weeks  earlier  than  in  the  Northern  ones, 
and  with  a  much  louger  season  for  maturity, 
so  that  time  of  planting  is  not  of  so  great  sig- 
nificance, as  for  example  in  Wisconsin,  where 
some  varieties  will  not  mature  at  all,  while 
others  will  barely  mature  before  killing  frosts. 
Every  one  will  have  to  be  his  own  judge  for  his 
special  conditions,  but  it  will  be  well  to  watcli 
for  the  young  oak  leaves  and  note  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  soil. 

Rate  or  distance  apart  of  planting. — It  may 
be  accepted  as  true  that  where  corn  is  grown 
for  the  grain  each  plant  should  have  an  oppor- 
tunity for  its  fullest  development.  With  soil 
of  the  same  character  and  fertility  it  would  not 
be  best  to  plant  an  acre  of  the  same  corn  in 
New  York  and  Tennessee  under  equal  condi- 
tions as  regards  quantity  of  seed.  A  less  amount 
would  do  where  the  plants  grew  large  and  ro- 
bust; consequently  we  find  a  person  in  one 
latitude  growing  one  or  two  stalks  in  a  place, 
while  in  another  locality,  with  less  favorable 
conditions,  three  or  four  stalks  are  grown. 

At  the  Georgia  station,  in  tests  as  to  distance 
of  corn  grown  in  hills,  5x4  feet  apart  gave  the 

*  Annual  report  Ohio  agricultural  experiment  station  for 
1888,  p.  80. 


PLANTING.  87 

largest  yield  per  acre.  In  reporting  on  this 
test  Director  Redding  says:  "The  season  of 
1890  may  be  considered  as  about  an  average 
one,  and  therefore  the  results  of  this  experi- 
ment may  be  taken  as  indicating  that  a  dis- 
tance of  5x4  (or  2,184  stalks  to  the  acre)  is  not 
too  great  for  such  land.'"^' 

In  South  Carolina  in  experiments  conducted 
at  Spartansburg,  Columbia  and  Darlington  on 
distance  apart  of  planting,  the  hills  ranged  from 
5x3  to  6x3  feet,  and  the  drills  from  five  to  six 
feet  apart.     These  experiments  indicated  that 


Fig.  27.— farmers'  Favorite  one-Horse  Front  rank  Corn  Drill. 

"it  made  little  difference  whether  the  rows 
were  five  feet  or  six  feet  apart  or  the  checks 
5x3  feet  or  6x3  feet."t 

At  the  New  York  experiment  station  numer- 
ous experiments  with  Waushakum  corn,  ex- 


*  Bulletin  No.  10,  December,  1890,  Georgia  agricultural 
experiment  station. 

t  Second  annual  report  South  Carolina  experiment  sta- 
tions, 1889,  p.  252. 


88  INDIAN    CORN   CULTURE. 

tending  over  four  years,  gave  the  most  satis- 
factory yields  where  four  to  five  stalks  grew  in 
hills  42  by  44  inches  apart.* 

At  the  Illinois  station  elaborate  experiments 
with  dent  corn  have  been  carried  on  since  1888 
on  number  of  kernels  planted  per  hill  and  the 
distance  apart  of  the  hills.  As  a  general  thing 
the  largest  yields  occurred  from  planting  four 
kernels  in  a  hill,  and  the  average  yield  of  69.5 
bu.  of  air-dry  corn  was  the  greatest  amount  se- 
cured, and  this  bj^  putting  four  seeds  in  hills 
four  feet  apart.f 

At  the  Purdue  Univei'sity  station  the  rela- 
tion of  thickness  of  planting  to  yield  has  been 
studied  for  eight  years.:|:  The  average  results 
of  this  work  show  no  material  difference  in 
yields  where  stalks  are  practically  11,  12  or  14 
inches  apart,  but  for  distances  exceeding  this 
there  is  a  gradual  falling  off  in  yield. 

In  an  interesting  article  on  "Distance  apart 
in  planting  corn,"  D.  S.  B.  of  Hartford,  N.  Y., 
says:§ 

"The  distance,  after  years  of  experiments  on  average  soils 
is,  in  my  opinion,  33  inches  or  six  to  the  rod.  This  with 
good  tools  renders  cultivation  easy  and  rapid,  and  with  thi'ee 

*  Annual  reports  New  York  agricultural  experiment  sta- 
tion for  1882,  1883,  1884,  1885. 

t  Illinois  agricultural  experiment  station  Bulletin  31, 
March,  1894,  p.  354. 

X  Purdue  University  agricultural  experiment  station,  Bul- 
letin 50,  April,  1894,  p.  46. 

§  Country  Gentleman.Mavch  IS,  1886. 


PLANTING.  OV 

or  foui-  stalks  in  the  hill  covers  the  ground  thoroughly, 
smothering,  to  a  certain  degree,  weeds  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  season,  and  yielding  maximum  crops  of  grain  and  fodder. 
On  some  soils,  with  plenty  of  manure,  30  inches  have  given 
the  best  results,  but  not  so  invariably  as  33  inches.  At  the 
latter  distance  the  ears  will  be  as  sound  and  well  developed 
as  at  a  greater,  but  not  so  long;  at  the  same  time  there  will 
be  a  larger  number,  making  the  yield  the  same.  The  fodder 
is  much  superior  to  that  grown  at  greater  distance,  stock 
consuming  it  with  little  waste,  as  it  is  fully  developed  ^nd  if 
cut  at  the  proper  time  and  properly  cured  makes  superior 
feed  for  cows." 

This  probably  applies  to  flint  corn..  For  the 
large  western  dent  corn  this  distance  is  too 
close. 

If  corn  is  to  be  planted  in  hills,  in  the  North 
as  a  rule  36x42  inches  will  prove  satisfactory 
for  the  large  varieties;  and  if  in  drills,  one 
kernel  every  foot  in  drills  42  inches  apart.  In 
the  South  these  distances  may  be  increased  to 
suit  conditions. 

Drills  vs.  hills.— Experimental  work  thus  far 
conducted  indicates  that  it  makes  but  little 
difference,  so  far  as  yield  is  concerned,  whether 
corn  is  grown  in  drills  or  in  hills.  Cleaner  cul- 
tivation can  be  maintained  with  the  hill  sys- 
tem, as  the  soil  may  be  stirred  on  all  sides  of 
the  group  of  plants.  A  field  of  drilled  corn, 
however,  by  going  up  and  down  between  the 
rows,  can  be  kept  creditably  free  of  weeds  and 
may  require  less  labor  in  hoeing  than  will  that 
planted  in  hills.    In  New  England  and  the 


90 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


Middle  States  most  of  the  corn  is  grown  in 
hills,  but  in  the  Central  AVest  and  South  the 
drill  sj^stem  is  largely  practiced. 


Morrow  and  Gardner"^  in   1893  grew  seven 
half-acre  plats  of  corn  in  hills  and  drills,  and 

*  Illinois  agricultural   experiment  station.     Bulletin  31, 
March,  1894. 


PLANTING. 


91 


found  practically  no  difference  in  yields.  This 
is  in  accordance  with  previous  experience. 

At  the  Connecticut  State  experiment  station 
corn  was  planted  in  drills  four  feet  apart,  with 
plants  10  inches  apart  in  the  row,  and  in  hills 
48  by  40  inches  four  plants  to  the  hill,  and  48 
by  20  inches  two  plants  per  hill.*  The  drilled 
corn  gave  about  six  per  cent  more  dry  matter 
and  a  larger  yield  of  each  food  ingredient.  The 
composition  of  the  grain  was  about  the  same, 
whether  hill  or  drill  grown. 

At  the  South  Carolina  stations,  as  already 
noted,  it  made  no  practical  difference  in  yield 
whether  the  corn  was  planted  in  hills  or  drills. 


Fig.  29.— Challenge  Corn  Planter, 


Where  land  is  fairly  level,  and  the  corn  crop 
is  an  item  of  special  importance  on  the  farm. 


*  Annual  report  for  ^^ 
experiment  station,  p.  183 


1890  Connecticut  State  agricultural 


92  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

on  well-prepared  land  the  drill  system  will  be 
most  economical  in  rapidity  of  planting  and 
cultivating.  This  means,  of  course,  that  a 
modern  horse  corn-planter  shall  be  used. 

Depth  of  planting.— On  warm,  light  soil,  the 
seed  should  be  planted  deeper  than  where  it 
is  cold  and  retentive.  The  process  of  vegeta- 
tion is  slower  on  cold  than  warm  land,  as  the 
temperature  is  lower  at  the  same  depth  below 
the  surface.  In  summer  if  a  drouth  occurs  the 
greater  depth  of  planting  on  the  light  soil  is 
beneficial  to  the  growing  crop.  If  a  low  river 
bottom  is  the  corn  field,  shallow  planting  will 
do,  as  crops  rarely  suffer  from  lack  of  moisture 
in  such  a  location.  Generally  speaking  the 
writer  believes  one  and  a  half  inch  a  satisfactory 
depth  to  plant  the  seed. 

As  bearing  on  this  subject,  the  following 
table  of  results  of  experiments  on  depth  of 
planting,  conducted  at  the  Ohio  and  Illinois  ex- 
periment stations,  is  of  interest."  The  Ohio 
experiments  are  average  results  of  six  years' 
work  (1S83-1SS8)  and  those  of  Illinois  of  five 
years'  duration  (1SSS-1S93): 


*  Bulletin  No.  31,  Illinois  station,  Mai*ch,  1894,  and  seventh 
annual  report  of  Ohio  station,  for  year  1888,  p.  81. 


PLANTING. 


93 


YIELD    IN    BUSHELS    PER    ACRE    FROM    CORN    PLANTED    AT 
DIFFERENT  DEPTHS. 


Year. 

Depth  x>lanied  in  inches. 

Station. 

J. 

S. 

S. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

1883 

86.3 
36.9 
72.5 
58.9 
33.7 
96,2 

60.8 
37.4 
64.8 
41.3 
32.9 
93.0 

50.7 
41.6 
62.5 
32.3 

28.1 

1 884 

1885 

1880 

1887 

1888 

Ohio. 

Average 

64.0 

55.0 

43.0 

1888 

1889 

1890 

1892 

1893 

109.7 
83.0 

77.8 
05.8 
51.3 

84.4 
83.0 

72.8 
64.7 

48.7 

100.8 
51.0 
70.3 
62.7 
40.7 

88.0 
87.0 
58.4 
70.3 
40.0 

73.1 
81.0 
62.3 
56.5 
33.4 

60.3 
92.0 
60.3 

58.5 
29.0 

40 '.5 

■  Illinois. 

Average 

77.5 

71.5 

05.1 

68.8 

61.2 

60.0 

40.5 

At  the  Ohio  station  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the 
shallow  plantings  gave  decidedly  the  best  re- 
turns, and  at  the  Illinois  station  the  same  prac- 
tically holds  true.  It  is  important  to  note, 
however,  that  the  Ohio  "corn  planted  three 
and  four  inches  deep  seemed  to  retain  its  vital- 
ity longer  than  that  planted  at  less  depth.  The 
roots  of  the  deep-planted  corn  were  found,  as 
we  should  naturally  expect,  much  deeper  in  the 
soil  than  where  the  corn  was  planted  more 
shallow;  hence  their  opportunity  to  secure  food 
and  moisture  was  materially  enhanced."  The 
experiments  in  both  States  were  conducted  on 
deep,  retentive  soils. 


94  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

Listing.— The  listing  process  is  peculiarly  a 
Western  one,  practiced  on  the  big  corn  fields 
of  Iowa,  Kansas,  N'ebraska,  and  the  other  great 
corn-growing  States  west  of  the  Mississippi.  In 
1886  the  Farmers'  Review  published*  a  number 
of  articles  on  listing,  one  of  which,  by  Nelson 
Cowles  of  Dakota  City,  Neb.,  is  so  clear  in  ex- 
plaining the  process  that  it  is  inserted  here  in 
the  main: 

"The  listing  plow  consists  of  a  double  share  and  mold 
board,  or  a  right  and  left-hand  plow,  so  joined  together  as  to 


Fig.  30.— Listing  Ploav. 

turn  the  soil  both  ways  from  a  common  center.  Attached  to 
the  plow  is  a  small  subsoiler  which  loosens  the  soil  in  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow.  There  are  two  classes  of  the  different 
makes  of  listers,  the  single  and  the  combined.  When  the 
single  lister  is  used  a  common  Hoosier  drill  follows  the  plow 
in  the  furrow  and  plants  the  corn.  In  the  combined  imple- 
ment a  drill  is  attached  directly  to  the  plow,  thereby  saving 
the  labor  of  an  extra  man  and  horse,  and  if  the  implement  is 
properly  constructed  woi"ks  equally  as  well. 

"There  are  methods  of  listing  corn  known  as  'single'  and 
'double'  listing.     In  the  single  method  work  is  not  com- 


Farmers'  Review,  April  21, 1886. 


PLANTING.  95 

menced  until  planting  time,  when  the  lister  is  used  in  the 
hollows  oi"  middles  between  the  old  corn  rows,  or  else  on  fall- 
plowed  land,  where  the  lister  is  run  through  the  field  from 
three  to  four  feet  apart,  according  to  the  soil,  kind  of  corn 
planted,  and  judgment  of  the  operator.  The  single  method 
seems  better  adapted  to  sections  of  uncertain  rainfall,  being 
only  one-half  the  labor  of  the  double  plow,  which  is  as  fol- 
lows: As  soon  as  the  stalks  are  cleared  from  the  field  in  the 
spring,  the  listing  plow,  with  di'ill  I'emoved,  is  put  at  work 
splitting  the  old  corn  rows,  thus  filling  the  middles  and  form- 
ing a  new  i-idge  therein.  This  preparation  gives  drainage 
and  opens  the  soil  to  the  warming  influence  of  the  sun.  Then 
when  planting  time  comes  the  drill  is  attached  and  the  new 
ridge  is  divided,  and  the  corn  planted  in  the  furrow  thus 
made,  the  drill  dropping  the  corn,  one  kernel  in  a  place,  from 
8  to  20  inches  apart,  as  the  operator  may  choose.  By  this 
plan  more  thorough  tillage  is  secured.     *    *    * 

"In  cultivating  after  the  corn  is  up  the  field  is  gone  over 
with  a  planker,  or  what  is  far  better,  a  smoothing  harrow, 
which  smoother  the  ridge  and  prepares  the  ground  for  the 
cultivatoi",  which  is  used  with  but  one  shovel  on  each  side  of 
the  row  the  first  time  and  both  shovels  afterwards." 

Concerning  the  merits  of  listing  there  is 
much  diversity  of  opinion.  At  the  Kansas  ex- 
periment station  this  practice  has  been  com- 
mended on  the  basis  of  experimental  returns.* 
Four  plats  listed,  compared  with  four  given 
surface  planting,  showed  a  small  gain  for  the 
former — about  four  per  cent.  At  the  Minne- 
sota station  results  somewhat  unfavorable  to 
listing  were  secured  in   ISSS.f    Fi-ancis  Mc- 


*  Kansas  agricultural  experiment  station.  Report  for 
1889,  p.  19. 

t  Minnesota  agricultural  experiment  station.  Bulletin 
No.  5,  1SS8. 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


PLANTING. 


97 


Kenzie,  in  the  Farmers'  Revieiv  (April  21,  1886), 
states  that  he  believes  listing  is  of  doubtful 
utility  excepting  in  very  sandy  land  where  the 
rainfall  is  deficient.  On  ordinary  prairie  land 
he  prefers  the  standard  method.  Another 
writer  in  this  same  journal  expresses  no  faith 
in  listing  where  there  is  abundant  moisture 
and  heavy  soil.  Prof.  Georgeson  of  K-ansas 
says :  "*' 

"Deep  planting  by  the  use  of  the  lister  is  undoubtedly  the 
best  means  to  tide  ovei*  a  drouth.  Here  in  Kansas,  where 
the  rainfall  is  somewhat  uncertain,  the  majority  of  the  farm- 
ers list  their  corn,  and  in  a  dry  season  listed  coi'n  frequently 
yields  a  fair  crop  when  surface-planted  corn  is  ft  failure.  The 
roots  of  listed  corn  are  not  so  near  the  surface  and  they  there- 
fore do  not  feel  the  drouth  so  severely.  For  this  same  rea- 
son listed  corn  can  be  cultivated  deeper  with  impunity.  But 
the  lister  cannot  be  used  to  advantage  everywhere,  espe- 
cially whei'e  the  rainfall  is  usually  sufficient  to  supply  the 
needs  of  the  crop.  In  such  regions  listed  corn  would  be 
liable  to  be  drowned  out  unless  the  soil  was  well  drained: 
Again,  on  stiff  clays  listing  cannot  be  practiced  with  the 
same  advantage  as  it  can  on  the  black  prairie  mold." 

Mr.  J.  M.  Boomer  of  Kansas  says  in  the 
Breeder's  Gazette  (Feb.  13,  1895,)  that  he  has 
l)een  listing  corn  for  fifteen  years,  and  nine- 
tenths  of  the  corn  in  his  neighborhood  is  listed. 
He  plants  with  a  single-horse  drill,  dropping 
the  kernels  15  inches  apart.  He  prefers  a  sin- 
gle drill  to  a  double  one,  because  if  the  rows 
are  not  just  the  right  distance  apart  the  two- 

*  Indiana  Farmer,  June  30,  1894. 
T 


98  INDIAN    CORN    CULTURE. 

horse  drill  does  not  drop  in  the  middle  of  the 
furrow  as  a  single  one  will.  A  man  and  a  boy 
with  four  horses  will  list  and  plant  seven  acres 
per  day.  He  prefers  listing  to  plowing  the 
ground  and  planting  on  top,  as  it  is  more  easily 
done,  the  land  is  more  easily  cultivated,  and 
consequently  it  is  cheaper  to  raise  it  in  this 
way.  The  corn  stands  the  drouth  better,  does 
not  blow  down  like  top-planted  corn,  and  yields 
more  per  acre. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  this  process  are: 
(1)  economy  of  labor,  (2)  more  thorough  tillage, 

(3)  ability  of  the  crop  to  withstand  drouth,  and 

(4)  increase  of  crop. 


HARVESTING.  99 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


HARVESTING. 

The  general  results  of  investigation  indicate 
that  when  the  kernel  on  the  ear  has  become 
glazed  or  hard  on  the  surface,  even  though 
somewhat  soft  within,  it  contains  as  much  nu- 
triment as  it  will  possess  at  any  time.  Further 
ripening  does  not  seem  to  materially  affect  the 
grain  composition. 

Time  for  cutting. — In  experiments  at  the 
Iowa  station*  five  plats  were  cut  at  periods 
varying  from  Sept.  17  to  Oct.  13.  Plat  I  was 
cut  when  the  kernels  were  "in  the  dough,"  not 
quite  all  dented,  and  leaves  green;  plat  II,  ker- 
nels well  dented  and  leaves  just  beginning  to 
dry;  plat  III.  kernels  ripened  and  blades  about 
half  dry;  plat  IV,  kernels  thoroughly  ripened 
and  blades  and  husk  rapidly  drying  up;  plat 
V,  blades  and  husk  nearly  all  dry.  There  was 
no  noteworthy  difference  in  crude  protein  in 
the  dry  matter  between  the  first  and  last  cut- 

*  Bulletin  23,  Iowa  agricultural  experiment  station,  1893, 
pp.  874-880. 


100  INDIAN  CORN  CULTURE. 

ting.  The  widest  variation  in  per  cent  of  car- 
boh3'drates  was  less  than  one  per  cent,  while 
there  was  a  slight  increase  in  fat  from  first  to 
last  cutting.  In  any  case  the  feeding  value  of 
the  corn  does  not  seem  to  be  affected.  As  might 
have  been  expected,  the  corn-fodder  was  in- 
jured in  quality  by  delaying  cutting  after  the 
grain  was  mature.  There  was  a  depreciation 
in  crude  protein  in  the  fodder  from  8.47  in  plat 
I,  to  4.05  per  cent  in  plat  V,  and  this  loss  in- 
creased from  week  to  week.  Fodder  that  was 
left  uncut  in  the  field  till  December  w[is  ma- 
terially damaged.  There  was  also  a  great  loss 
in  fat,  this  per  cent  falling  from  1.11  to  0.29 
per  cent.  There  was  something  of  an  increase 
in  crude  fiber  and  carbohydrates,  but  this  would 
not  affect  the  loss  of  the  more  important  food 
components.  The  largest  amounts  of  dry  mat- 
ter from  an  acre,  6,782  lbs.  in  fodder  and  ker- 
nels combined,  was  secured  from  the  second 
cutting. 

Among  the  conclusions  reached,  as  based  on 
this  study,  are  the  following: 

"(1)  The  stover  of  a  crop  of  corn  seems  to  reach  the  high- 
est yield  and  the  bsst  condition  for  feeding  at  the  stage  of 
growth  indicated  by  a  well-dented  kernel  and  the  first  dry- 
ing of  the  blades.  (2)  The  grain  of  a  crop  of  corn  seems  to 
reach  the  higlicst  yield  and  the  best  condition  for  utility  at 
the  stage  of  growth  indicated  by  a  well-ripened  ear  and  halT- 
dried  blade,  and  the  best  time  for  securing  the  crop  with 
reference  to  the  highest  utility  of  both  corn  and  stover  would 
be  found  at  a  stage  of  ripening  between  the  above." 


HARVESTING.  101 

These  general  results  and  conclusions  are 
such  as  have  been  accepted  on  the  basis  of  pre- 
vious investigations.  At  the  Kansas  station 
corn  cut  in  the  milk  stage  (Aug,  20)  yielded 
35.5  bu.  grain  and  2.4  tons  of  fodder  per  acre; 
in  the  dough  (Aug.  28),  51  bu.  grain  and  2.4 
tons  fodder;  when  ripe  (Sept.  18),  74  bu.  grain 
and  2.7  tons  fodder.*  These  results  agree  with 
work  at  that  station  for  the  three  years  in  suc- 
cession. 

Cutting  for  silage. — Where  corn  is  cut  for 
silage  the  crop  should  be  harvested  when  well 
glazed  or  dented.  At  the  Minnesota  station, 
where  corn  grown  for  silage  was  cut  from  Sept. 
4  to  24,  the  dry  matter  in  a  dent  variety  in- 
creased from  11.4  to  19.7  per  cent,  and  in  a 
sweet  variety  from  9.1  to  13.3  per  cent.f  At 
the  New  York  State  station  the  dry  matter  per 
acre  in  B.  &  W.  corn  cut  for  silage  Sept.  11  was 
5,004  lbs.,  and  on  Sept.  29,  5,660  lbs.  In  1889, 
with  King  Philip  corn,  there  was  an  increase 
in  the  total  amount  of  dry  matter  and  in  the 
nutritive  value  of  its  constituents  as  the  crop 
approached  maturity.:|:  At  the  Cornell  Uni- 
versity station   similar  returns  were  secured 


*  Kansas  agricultural  experiment  station,  Bulletin  No.  30. 

t  Minnesota  agricultural  experiment  station,  Bulletin 
No.  7. 

t  New  York  State  agricultural  experimen  t  stal  ion.  Se  vent  h 
iiunual  report,  ]8S9,  p.  88. 


102 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


from  Pride  of  the  North  com."  The  Wiscon- 
sin station  recommends  the  cutting  of  flint 
varieties  for  sihige  when  just  past 
glazing  and  dent  varieties  when  "well 
dented."!  In  an  interesting  experi- 
ment at  the  Pennsylvania  station  by 
Hunt  and  Caldwell,  to  ascertain  the 
food  value  of  corn-fodder  cut  at  dif- 
ferent stages  of  ripeness,  of  three  cut- 
tings (Sept.  1  and  2,  Sept.  25  and  Oct. 
7  and  8),  the  best  results  came  from 
that  cut  Sept.  25.  Cows  fed  on  me- 
dium mature  corn-fodder  produced 
the  largest  quantity  of  butter-fat  at 
the  least  cost,  the  late-cut  fodder  gave 
the  next  best  returns,  while  the  early- 
cut  made  the  poorest  showing.^ 

Methods  of  cutting. — At  the  pi-es- 
ent  day  most  of  the  corn  cut  for  the 
silo  or  for  shocking  is  cut  by  hand 
with  a  corn  knife.  In  the  West  a 
popular  knife  has  a  straight  blade 
(see  Fig.  32)  about  20  inches  long, 
two  inches  wide,  and  rather  heavy  on 
the  back.     In  the  East  a  knife  wath  slightly- 

*Cornell  University  agricultural  experiment  station,  Bul- 
letin No.  16. 

t Wisconsin  agricultural  experiment  station.  Annual  re- 
port for  1889,  p.  126. 

JPennsylvania  State  college  experiment  station.  Report 
for  1892,  pp.  3+-43. 


HARVESTING.  103 

curved  blade,  set  in  the  end  of  a  short  handle, 
blade  and  handle  forming  an  obtuse  angle, 
makes  a  favorite  hand  knife.  Some  people 
use  a  grass  hook  or  sickle  from  preference. 
The  straight-bladed  corn  knife  is  unsurpassed 
for  rapid  and  effective  hand  work. 

Corn-harvesting  macliinery.— Within  a  few 
years  machines  have  been  devised  for  cutting 
corn  by  horse  power.  One  method  has  lieen  to 
haul  between  two  rows  a  drag  with  wings  on 
one  or  both  sides,  to  which  knives  are  attached. 
The  Buckeye  machine  (Fig.  33)  is  one  of  the 
most  approved  types  of  this  class.  It  is  carried 
on  four  wheels  and  is  pulled  by  one  horse.  In 
the  center  of  the  machine  is  a  tripod  with  a 
seat  on  which  two  men  may  sit,  one  on  each 
end  and  back  to  back,  each  facing  a  row  of  corn 
and  grasping  the  stalks  as  cut.  When  not  in 
use  the  wings  with  knives  may  be  laid  up 
against  the  tripod.  The  knives  adjust  to  leave 
stubble  6  to  14  inches  long  as  desired. 

The  self-binding  form  of  the  harvester,  how- 
ever, promises  to  be  the  important  one  of  the 
future.  In  the  Bural  New  Yorker  of  June  20, 
1891,  Prof.  I.  P.  Roberts  of  Cornell  University 
described  amachine  he  devised  for  cutting  and 
binding  corn.  This  machine  was  improved  by 
D.  M.  Osborn  &  Co.  Since  then  a  number  of 
firms  have  placed  self-binders  on  the  market. 
The  Doering  Harvester  Co.  construct  a  machine 


104 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


FIG  33.— Buckeye  Coun  liakvester. 


^   r  .<-»^. 


m/ 


-fe^g;^. 


FIG.  33a.— The  McCormick  Corx  Binder. 


HARVESTING. 


105 


which  runs  on  two  38-iiich  wheels.  Two  wide 
gatherer  arms  embrace  a  row  of  corn  and  guide 
the  stalks  to  the  point  where  they  are  cut  while 
standing  upright,  being  pressed  against  a  long, 
sharp  slanting  knife.  The  corn  is  seized  by 
the  strong  fingers  of  a  rotary  ledger  plate  and 
pressed  against  a  long  beveled  knife.  As  soon 
as  the  corn  is  cut  it  is  taken  up  by  gatherer 
chains  and  laid  on  the  binding  deck,  tassels 
backward  and  bound  and  discharged,  the  bun- 
dles being  tossed  off  lengthwise  between  the 
wheels. 

The  McCormick  Harvesting  Co.  also  make  a 
self-binder  (see  Fig.  33  a)  that  is  being  used 
with  much  success.  The  stalks  are  cut  off  near 
the  ground  and  carried  in  a  vertical  position  to 
a  modified  form  of  the  common  self-binder, 
where  they  are  bound  in  bundles  with  the 
butts  square  and  in  good  shape  for  shocking. 
The  bundles  are  thrown  off  to  one  side.  Ordi- 
nary binding  twine  is  used.  The  machine  is 
adjustaljle  to  short  or  tall  corn  and  may  be 
tilted  np  or  down  to  pick  up  sprawling  stalks. 
The  McCormick  and  Osborn  machines  in  a  trial 
at  the  Indiana  experiment  station  did  very  sat- 
isfactory work. 

There  has  within  the  past  year  been  a  large 
sale  of  these  self-binders.  The  Deering  Co. 
state  that  they  are  unable  to  supply  the  de- 
mand, and  the  McCormicks  have  sold  more  than 


106  INDIAN    CORN    CULTURE. 

1G,000  machines  since  making  their  exhibit  at 
the  Columbian  Exposition. 

Where  corn  culture  is  engaged  in  to  an  ex- 
tensive degree  the  self-binding  harvester  is  a 
great  labor-saving  machine,  while  where  less 
corn  is  grown  the  sijnpler  knife  harvester  can 
be  used  to  advantage. 

In  hauling  silage  corn  or  fodder  a  low-down 
wagon  is  a  great  improvement  over  the  high 
wiieels.  Fig.  34,  re-engraved  from  the  Count nj 
Gentleman,  represents  a  method  of  cariying  a 
load  close  to  the  ground.  It  is  made  by  insert- 
ing a  reach  20  feet  long,  made  of  a  round  pole 


bending  down  with  a  foot  curve.  Closely  under 
the  axles  two  stiff  timbers  over  20  feet  long  are 
chained  to  the  axles,  and  cross  pieces  7  feet 
long  are  spiked  on  them  to  support  the  two 
broad  l)oai-ds  or  planks  which  are  outside  the 
wheels.  A  platform  is  thus  formed  7  feet  wide, 
over  14  feet  long,  only  a  foot  above  ground. 
Small  wheels  may  also  be  bought  for  common 
axles,  replacing  high  wheels. 

Shocking  the  corn. — The  number  of  hills 
or  amount  of  rows  which  may  be  placed  in  one 
shock  to  best  advantage  depends  upon  the 
class  of  corn,  whether  large  or  small.     If  grown 


HARVESTING. 


107 


in  hills,  and  of  mediuni-sizecl  plants,  ten  hills 
square  (100  hills)  Avill  make  a  good  shock.  Of 
smaller  corn,  144  hills  may  be  pat  into  a  shock; 
while  of  very  large  corn  81  hills  makes  a  plenty. 
Yet  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion  on  this  sub- 
ject and  many  place  over  100  hills  of  fairly 
large  corn  in  one  shock.  However,  a  medium- 
sized  shock  cures  out  more  rapidly  than  a  large 
one  and  the  ear  becomes  fit  for  storing  at  an 
earlier  date. 

Where  corn  is  grown  in  drill  rows  about  40 
feet  each  of  eight  rows  will  give  material 
enough  for  a  good  shock.  A  medium-sized 
shock  should  have  a  circumference  at  its  base 
of  al)out  25  feet.  Anything  much  over  that 
might  be  termed  a  large  shock. 

Where  wheat  is  to  be  sown  in  the  corn  rows 
the  shocks  should  be  larger  and  further  apart. 
Under  such  circumstances  they  should  be  as 
lai'ge  and  as  far  apart  as  economy  of  labor  in 
construction  will  permit.  Waldo  F.  Brown, 
in  writing  of  his  new  method  of  shocking  on 
wheat  seeded  corn  land,  says:"^' 

"We  cut  the  corn  and  put  10  rows  in  a  shock  row,  but  only 
eight  hills  the  other  way,  and  in  a  few  days  when  the  corn 
has  dried  out  so  as  to  reduce  the  weight  about  one-half  we 
carry  one  shock  from  each  side  and  set  around  the  middle 
one,  which  gives  us  240  hills  to  a  shock  and  makes  our  shock 
rows  30  I'ods  apart.  We  do  this  handling  in  the  morning 
when  the  dew  makes  the  fodder  tough  to  handle,  and  as  the 

*  Farmers'  Bevieiv,  Sept.  26,  18S8. 


IDS  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

fodder  is  partly  cured  we  can  make  the  shocks  this  large 
without  danger  of  their  moulding.  If  wheat  is  not  sown  I 
prefer  100-hill  shocks  and  husk  them  as  soon  as  cured." 

Careful  shocking  necessary. — In  shocking 
it  is  important  that  the  shock  be  set  erect  and 
held  firmly  in  place  until  husking,  so  as  to  keep 
the  contents  dry  from  rain  and  not  retard 
proper  curing  of  both  fodder  and  grain.  A 
shock  that  has  been  blown  over  and  well 
soaked  with  water  is  materially  damaged.  If 
the  shock  is  properly  placed  about  one  uncut 
hill,  or  two  hills  with  plants  bent  part  way 


Fig.  35.— Corn  Uoksk. 

over  and  twisted  together,  it  should  not  blow 
down.  Care  should  be  taken  to  place  an  equal 
amount  of  stallvs  on  each  side  of  the  shock.  If 
the  central  hill  is  cut  a  corn  horse  may  be  used 
to  advantage.  This  is  made  by  taking  a  piece 
of  timber  2x4  inches  by  12  feet,  on  one  end  of 
which  are  nailed  two  legs  about  three  and  one- 
half  feet  long.  An  inch  hole  is  bored  about 
five  feet  from  the  raised  end,  through  which  is 
loosely  inserted,  horizontally,  a  round  cross 
piece.  An  old  broomstick  will  do  nicel.y. 
Charles  E.  Benton,  writing  of  the  corn  horse, 


HARVESTING.  109 

sa3^s:'^•  "Where  thej^  [the  legs]  join  the  main 
piece,  as  shown  at  a  in  Fig.  35, 1  have  nailed  on 
some  light  strips  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a 
little  cage  or  box  in  which  corn  ties  are  carried, 
each  one  with  its  string  snngly  wound  on  its 
block.'*'  The  stalks  are  placed  against  the  corn 
horse,  when  the  cross  stick  forms  four  corners, 
and  the  shock  is  built  here.  When  it  is  com- 
pleted the  cross  stick  is  pulled  out,  after  which 
the  horse  is  withdrawn. 

Tying  the  shocks. — After  the  shock  is  formed 
it  is  tied  near  the  top.  A  rope  with  a  pulley 
on  one  end  may  be  used  to  advantage  for  draw- 
ing the  cornstalks  together  tightly  near  the 
top,  aftei-  which  the  tie  may  be  placed  on  the 
shock.  Rye  straw  cut  in  the  blooui  makes  ex- 
cellent tie  bands.  Cornstalks  themselves  are 
too  l)rittle.  Binding  twine  is  strong  enough, 
but  may  be  cut  by  mice.  Tarred  twine  is 
strong  and  is  not  cut  by  mice,  and  may  be 
rapidly  tied  so  as  not  to  slip.  When  economy 
is  to  be  considered  rye  straw  is  about  as  satis- 
factory a  cheap  tie  as  can  be  secured.  In 
Western  New  York  willow  twigs  are  popular 
bands. 

Stacking.— To  stack  to  best  advantage,  or  to 
handle  on  tlie  wagon  or  elsewhere,  the  corn 
should  be  placed  in  small  bundles  and  tied  at 
the  center  after  curing  in  the  shock.     If  string 

'''American  Agriculturist,  Sept.  1,  1894. 


110  INDIAN   CORN    CULTURE. 

is  to  be  used  for  binding  it  will  expedite  work 
to  cut  it  into  suitable  lengths  before  getting 
into  the  field. 

The  stack  should  be  located  in  a  convenient 
and  well-drained  place  and  have  a  foundation 
of  straw,  rails  or  boards,  to  keep  the  fodder 
dry.  The  base  of  the  stack  should  have  a  di- 
ameter slightly  less  than  the  length  of  two 
bundles  of  stalks  laid  end  to  end.  The  butt 
ends  of  the  stalks  should  form  the  exteri.or  of 
the  stack  and  the  center  should  always  be  from 
two  to  three  feet  higher  than  the  outside  for 
that  layer  of  corn.  The  diameter  in  well-made 
stacks  slightly  increases  up  to  a  height  of  six 
or  eight  feet,  after  which  it  may  contract  until 
topped  off.  As  the  stack  is  built  bundles  are 
laid  crosswise  over  each  layer  about  and  at  the 
center  and  over  the  ends  of  the  bundles  form- 
ing the  outer  layers,  to  keep  the  whole  well 
bound  together  and  to  maintain  a  sufficient 
slope  to  the  stalks  forming  the  outer  circum- 
ference of  the  stack.  When  the  top  is  to  be 
formed  the  stalks  may  be  gradually  drawn  in 
and  all  the  bundles  placed  in  layers  sloping 
from  center  to  without,  so  as  to  furnish  good 
protection  for  the  fodder  below.  Sometimes 
the  stalks  are  laid  up  to  a  pole  five  or  six  feet 
long,  inserted  in  the  top  of  stack,  to  which  the 
bundles  may  be  fastened.  Such  a  covering  is 
not  easily  displaced  by  the  wind. 


HARVESTING.  Ill 

Small  stacks  are  preferable  to  large  ones — 
from  50  to  100  shocks  to  each  one.  Such  a  size 
can  be  handled  to  better  advantage  than  a  large 
one,  whether  the  fodder  is  fed  in  field  or 
stable. 

Pulled  fodder  is  especially  prepared  in  the 
South,  This  operation  is  well  described  by 
"H."  in  the  Coiintrij  Gentleman  of  Feb.  5,  1885: 

"There  are  usually  two  stalks  in  a  hill  of  corn;  the  blades 
are  gathered  as  high  as  the  operator  can  reach,  from  both 
stalks,  and  thrust  between  them  to  remain  until  dry  enough 
to  bind  into  bundles,  which  are  as  large  as  the  blades  will 
reach  around  and  tie.  This  tying  is  done  very  late  in  the 
evening  after  the  dew  begins  to  fall,  when  the  corn  blades, 
thoroughly  dry,  are  just  moist  enough  not  to  crumble.  The 
fodder  has  then  to  be  packed  [-carried]  by  hand,  either  to  the 
ends  of  the  rows,  where  it  can  be  hauled  to  the  barn,  or  if 
the  rows  are  very  long,  to  some  central  point  to  be  stacked, 
not  in  loose  leaves,  but  in  bundles." 

This  method  of  securing  fodder  is  becoming 
less  and  less  practiced  in  the  South.  The  cost 
of  fodder  so  secured  is  too  great  and  valuable 
faod  material  is  lost  in  the  stalks  left  in  the 
field.  As  a  practical  business  matter  the 
Southern  farmer  should  cut  his  corn  within  six 
inches  of  the  ground  and  cure  it  in  the  shock, 
as  is  done  elsewhere.  The  practice  of  topping 
corn  is  equally  as  undesirable  as  pulling. 

Husking. — In  the  eastern  United  States 
where  the  weather  is  somewhat  uncertain  in 
the  fall,  and  snow  comes  earl.y,  the  corn  is  usu- 
ally husked  as  soon  as  dry  enough.    The  ears 


112  INDIAN    CORN   CULTURE. 

are  often  pulled  irom  st;ilks  with  husks  on  and 
carried  to  the  barn,  where  they  may  be  husked 
at  leisure,  or  stalks  with  ears  on  are  placed  in 
shelter,  with  the  husking  to  follow  later.  In 
the  great  corn-growing  States,  where  less  rain 
occurs  in  the  fall  than  in  the  East,  held  husk- 
ing is  more  easily  accomplished.  Where  the 
corn  is  not  cut  and  shocked,  deep  box  wagons 
drive  through  the  immense  fields  when  the 
corn  is  well  dried,  and  the  ears  are  pulled  from 


Fig  aij.— Finger  Husking  Pi\. 

the  husks  and  thrown  into  the  wagon  and  con- 
veyed directly  to  crib  or  market.  Where  the 
corn  is  shocked,  after  curiug  the  ear  is  husked 
and  usually  thrown  into  heaps  in  between  the 
rows,  or  into  wagons,  and  the  stalks  placed  back 
into  the  shock.  Several  average-sized  shocks 
of  husked  stalks  are  generally  combined  to 
make  one  very  large  one. 

Dispensing  with  husking  —In  an  article  in 
the  Rvral  Neio-Yorher  published  about  1SS8 
Prof.  Sanborn  favors  dispensing  with  the  husk- 
ing process,  on  the  basis  that  it  involves  a  three- 
fold cost,  viz.: 

"First,  labor,  which  is  a  variable  amount,  depending  upon 


HARVESTING. 


113 


whether  the  fodder  is  saved  and  the  method  by  which  it  is 
saved.  If  the  fodder  is  not  saved  the  ccst  will  be  three 
cents  a  bushel  for  husking  and  cribbing,  and  on  the  assump- 
tion that  corn  sells  for  30  cents  a  bushel,  *  *  *  then  the 
food  must  be  10  per  cent  more  effective  simply  to  repay  us 
for  the  cost.  If  the  fodder  is  saved  the  cost  of  husking  will 
be  doubled  and  20  per  cent  will  have  to  be  added  to  the 
efficacy  of  the  food  to  balance  the  cost  of  the  process,  and 
more  must  be  expected  if  a  profit  is  to  be  received.  The 
second  additional  cost  will  be  the  loss  of  leaves,  as  the  result 
of  husking  in  the  field  after  the  fodder  is  partly  dried.  This 
loss  is  a  material  one  and  involves  the  most  digestible  part 
of  the  food.  It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  value  of  this  cost, 
but  when  added  to  the  third  loss,  or  the  risk  of  the  influence 
of  rain  with  its  leaching  effect  on  the  fodder  through  neces- 
sary delay  in  housing  the  fodder  while  husking  the  corn,  it 
is  safe  to  say  that  $1  per  acre  is  involved,  or  two  to  three 
cents  a  bushel  of  corn.'" 


FIG. 37— Hand  husking  pin. 


There  are  conditions  on  the  farm  where  it 
would  be  wise  to  profit  by  the  above  arguments, 
especially  where  steers  are  to  be  fed  in  the  feed 
lot,  to  be  followed  by  hogs,  or  where  the  entire 
cured  plant  is  to  be  run  through  the  feed  cut- 


114 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


ter.  However,  where  grain  is  to  be  sold  in  the 
market,  and  certain  classes  of  feeding  are  to  be 
done,  husking  is  necessary. 


Husking  machines.— For  several  years  husk- 
ing machines  have  been  manufactured  that  do 


HARVESTING. 


115 


a  very  satisfactory  class  of  work.  These  are 
quite  expensive  and  are  usually  owned  by 
parties  who  go  from  place  to  place  husking  the 
crop  at  so  much  per  bushel  and  shredding  or 
cutting  the  fodder  at  the  same  time.  The  Key- 
stone husker  and  shredder  (Fig.  38)  and  the  St. 
Albans  shredder  (Fig.  39)  are  two  of  the  prom- 
inent shredders  on  the  market,  and  the  manu- 
facturers of  the  Keystone  thus  explain  its 
operations: 

"The  stalks  are  fed  to  the  machine  with  the  ears  of  corn 
on.  The  feed  rollers  crush  the  stalks  thoroughly  and  pass 
them  on  to  the  knives,  which  cut  them  into  fodder,  or  to  the 
shredder  head,  which  tears  the  fodder  into  fine  shreds,  leav- 
ing it  in  very  much  the  same  condition  as  hay.  The  fodder 
elevator  then  carries  it  to  the  mow  of  the  barn  or  to  the  shed 
or  stack.  The  feed  rollers  do  not  crush  the  ears  of  corn,  but 
simply  snap  them  off  the  stalks.  The  ears  drop  to  the  husk- 
ing rollers  beneath  the  feeding  platform,  where  the  husks 
and  silks  are  taken  off.  The  husks  and  silks  are  passed  out 
with  the  fodder  and  the  eai's  of  corn  drop  to  an  elevator 
which  delivers  them  to  the  wagon  or  crib." 

This  machine  is  a  great  invention,  and  in 
large  corn-growing  districts  should  be  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  economy  of  handling  and 
saving  the  crop.  The  husking  is  done  as  well 
as  is  usually  done  by  hand. 

Shredding. — The  shredded  fodder  will  keep 
satisfactorily  in  the  mow  if  well  dried  when 
put  in,  but  if  it  is  damp  it  wall  mold.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  shredding  damp  fod- 
der.   This  material  is  very  valuable  for  feed 


116  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

and  is  being  regularly  sold  on  the  market.  At 
Lafayette,  Ind.,  the  writer  has  purchased  it  at 
the  feed  store  for  $5  per  ton,  while  in  some 
other  places  it  fetches  $8.  In  view  of  the  fact 
that  so  much  corn-fodder  goes  to  waste  in  the 
field  the  shredders  offer  a  valuable  medium  of 
rescuing  it  and  placing  it  on  the  market  in  a 
desirable  form  for  economical  feeding.  Says 
the  Breeder's  Gazette  (Aug.  15,  1894):  ''That 
the  invention  of  the  shredder  opens  up  a  mar- 
ket for  an  almost  unlimited  quantity  of  fodder, 
shredded  and  baled  (see  Fig.  40),  for  city  trade, 
is  beyond  all  question.  It  will  soon  be  quoted 
regularly  in  city  feed  stores  *  *  '"  and  we 
are  informed  that  a  bright,  well-cured  quality 
of  shredded  fodder  has  sold  in  bales  at  city  feed 
stores  at  $8  per  ton." 

Testimony  concerning  shredded  fodder. — 
During  the  spring  of  1895  the  Breedei-'s  Gazette 
published  many  interesting  letters  from  exten- 
sive corn  growers  and  stockmen  who  have 
shredded  their  dry  corn  fodder.  The  universal 
testimony  seems  favorable  to  this  method  of 
preparing  the  dry  plant  for  feeding.  The  shred- 
ded material  may  be  stacked  in  the  lot,  after 
the  manner  of  stacking  hay,  though  it  is  prefer- 
able to  place  it  under  shelter. 

The  following  evidence  is  abstracted  from 
the  various  communications  in  the  Gazette  as 
presenting  valuable  information  on  a  compar- 


HARVESTING. 


117 


atively  new  iirocess  of  preparing  rough  food: 
Wullf  Bros,  of  Nebraska  say:  "Corn  to  be 
shredded  ought  to  be  cut  jnst  as  soon  as  it  is 


out  of  milk,  and  it  Avill  shred  and  handle  the 
best  if  it  is  left  iu  the  field.  It  keeps  all  right 
if  ricked  outside  Avith  shed  roof  over  it,  but  it 
will  heat  and  mould  if  not  bone  dry  if  it  is  x^ut 


118  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

in  barn  and  in  great  bulk."  H.  L.  Buscliling  of 
Missouri  thinks  that  if  entirely  dry  when  shred- 
ded it  will  not  mould  if  put  in  barn  in  great 
bulk.  With  him  the  shredder  has  given  entire 
satisfaction.  Samuel  Senneff  of  Illinois  writes: 
"I  have  stacked  it  outside  and  it  kept  well.  It 
packed  so  solid  the  water  did  not  run  into  it. 
I  would  prefer  having  it  under  roof,  for  it  is 
easier  to  handle  during  the  winter  storms."  In 
reply  to  the  question,  "Is  it  not  likely  to  mould 
and  spoil  if  put  in  great  bulk?"  Mr.  Senneff 
says:  "It  will  not  if  it  is  fully  cured  and  dry 
when  shredded.  I  have  put  the  fodder  from 
40  acres  in  a  barn  and  it  has  kept  well.  I  am 
now  feeding  to  my  stock  fodder  which  was  cut 
last  October  and  it  is  bright  and  dry."  G.  H. 
Robinson  of  Vermont  cuts  his  corn  when  ripe, 
shocks  it  and  lets  it  stand  till  the  fodder  is  dry. 
Then  he  husks  it,  after  which  the  stalks  are 
drawn  to  the  barn,  shredded,  and  placed  in  the 
mow.  He  has  never  had  any  mould  or  spoil, 
and  the  larger  quantity  he  gets  together  the 
better  it  keeps. 

The  complaints  of  this  shredded  material  be- 
ing spoiled  by  moulding  are  very  rare,  and  it  is 
generally  agreed  that  if  the  stalks  are  fairly 
dry  when  shredded  they  will  not  spoil  in  the 
heap.  While  heating  sometimes  occurs,  in  the 
experience  of  the  writers  the  effects  do  not  ap- 
pear detrimental.    In  no  case  is  a  record  given 


RAK  VESTING.  119 

I 


of    spoiifaneous    coiiiijustioii    occnrriiig    from 
•  )vri--li(>al  iiig. 

'J'lie  indications  aro  that  the  shredding  of  dry 


cofn-fodder  will  liecoinoa  popular  and  econom- 
ical method  of  preparing  it  for  winter  feeding. 


120  INDIAN    CORN    ClJl/rURE. 

The  shrucMors  liainlle  from  three  to  ten  acres 
of  corn  a  day,  according  to  size  of  machine  and 
character  of  crop.  The  prices  of  shi-edders  are 
listed  at  |S0  to  $180,  and  of  huskersand  shred- 
ders C()nil)ined  at  $l.')0  to  $400. 

Threshing  corn  is  frecpiently  practiced  where 
threshing  machines  are  common  and  the  crop 
is  large.  A  common  threshing  machine  is  used. 
VV.  J.  Bingham  of  South  Dakota  says:* 

"I  huvc  threshed  it  for  the  past  five  years,  more  or  less, 
using  a  Westinghouse  Separator.  It  is  just  as  easy  to  thresh 
as  wheat.  Leave  the  cylinder  the  same  as  for  wheat,  and 
take  out  all  the  concave  teetli  but  one  single  row,  putting  in 
blank  concaves  or  boards  to  fill  out.  Run  the  macliine  about 
half  as  fast  as  for  threshing  wheat;  tliis  will  crack  the  corn 
some  but  will  not  hurt  it  for  feeding  purposes.  I  think  tliis 
is  a  superior  way  of  handling  corn,  especially  where  you  use 
a  binder  and  bind  corn  the  same  as  wheat.  The  fodder  is 
almost  equal  to  that  cut  by  a  fodder  cutter,  and  will  kt.ei) 
here  in  Dakota  in  stack  without  being  covered  with  anything, 
but  where  they  have  more  rain  top  with  marsh  hay  and  it 
will  keep  all  winter." 

Where  threshing  is  practiced  the  corn  niust 
be  vveil  dried  in  the  held,  else  the  grain  will 
heat  in  the  bin  or  i)ile. 

*  Breeder's  Gazette,  Oct.  10,  1S9J. 


ROTATION   OF   CROPS.  121 


CHAPTER  IX. 


ROTATION  OF   CROPS. 

Numerous  factors  demonstrate  the  necessity 
of  growing  different  crojjs  on  the  same  land 
during  a  period  of  years.  Agricultural  plants 
differ  in  their  root  development  and  conse- 
quently in  their  feeding  capacity.  The  clover 
plant  is  a  vigorous  feeder  and  sends  its  roots 
over  quite  a  range  of  territory^  while  the  sugar 
beet  develops  its  roots  to  a  much  more  limited 
extent. 

Rotation  rests  the  land.— We  know  that 
rotating  crops  rests  the  land  for  some  reasons 
which  cannot  be  entirely  explained.  Farmers 
know  that  red  clover  can  be  grown  satisfac- 
torily only  a  year  or  two  on  the  same  field, 
when  the  land  becomes  what  is  commonly 
termed  "clover  sick."    Says  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes:* 

"Land  will  also  become  sick  of  any  other  leguminous  ci'op 
if  grown  too  often;  but  it  is  a  most  singular  fact  that  where 
one  leguminous  crop  ceases  to  grow  another  will  thrive.  We 
had  a  remarkable  instance  of  this  in  one  of  our  fields  which 
was  bean  sick,  and  as  all  our  endeavors  to  grow  this  crop 
were  in  vain  we  at  last  decided  to  give  up  the  attempt,  and 


*  Country  Gentleman^  March  12,  1885. 


122  INDIAN  CORN  CULTURE. 

in  place  of  the  beans  we  sowed  barley  and  red  clover  together. 
The  result  was  that  the  red  clover  sown  with  the  barley  was 
so  luxuriant  as  greatly  to  interfere  with  its  gi'owth,  and  this 
too  upon  land  where  we  had  been  tidying  to  grow  beans  with- 
out manure  for  30  years.  In  spite  of  our  having  grown  a 
leguminous  crop  something  had  accumulated  in  the  soil 
which  was  more  favorable  to  the  growth  of  another  legu- 
minous plant  than  to  that  of  a  cereal  crop." 

Plants  also  differ  in  use  of  ingredients  of  soil 
fertility.  Tobacco  is  notably  a  potash  feeder, 
while  the  clovers  use  comparatively  more 
nitrogen  than  phosphoric  acid  or  potash.  This 
being  the  case,  one  kind  of  plant  food  might 
be  accumulating  in  the  soil  while  a  crop  was 
being  grown  upon  it  which  made  only  a  sliglit 
drain  upon  that  particular  element.  If  no  ma- 
nure was  put  upon  the  land  it  is  plain,  in  view 
of  these  facts,  that  the  land  could  be  cropped 
to  better  advantage  by  the  rotation  system 
than  by  continuously  growiug  the  same  class  of 
plants  on  it. 

An  important  factor  in  rotation  also  bears 
on  the  plant  food  left  in  the  roots  of  the  crop 
last  removed  from  the  field.  Gulley  states'*' 
that  when  either  red  clover  or  cowpeas  are 
grown  on  land  of  average  fertility  in  the  South 
after  cutting  off  the  crop  for  hay  the  stubble 
and  roots  on  an  acre  of  soil  contain  as  much 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  that  may 
become  available  to  the  next  crop  as  a  dressing 


*  First  Lessons  in  Agriculture,  1892,  p.  85. 


ROTATION   OF   CROPS.  123 

of  300  to  600  lbs.  of  cotton-seed  meal,  or  500 
lbs.  of  a  standard  fertilizer. 

Importance  of  rotation  recognized.— In  the 
rotation  S3^stem  the  fact  must  not  be  lost  sight 
of  tha.t  the  soil  may  be  kept  free  of  weeds  to 
the  best  advantage.  Grass  land,  followed  by  a 
hoed  crop,  permits  clean  cultivation. 

The  importance  of  rotation  is  recognized  to- 
day by  the  practical  farmer,  even  though  he 
may  not  understand  the  ^Drinciples  underlying 
the  practice. 

In  experiments  at  the  Purdue  University 
station  very  notable  gains  are  shown  in  favor 
of  rotation  as  applied  to  Indian  corn. 

An  experiment  was  begun  in  18S0  to  com- 
pare different  systems  of  cropping  without 
using  manures.  On  one  series  of  plats  grain  is 
grown  in  succession  year  after  year,  or  two 
crops  alternating  with  each  other,  these  crops 
being  corn,  oats,  wheat.  On  another  series  of 
plats  the  same  crops  have  been  grown  in  rota- 
tion with  clover  or  timothy.  The  yields  of 
corn  on  the  two  series  for  1893,  and  the  average 
yields  for  the  last  six  years,  as  given  by  Prof. 
W.  C.  Latta,  are  as  follows :  * 

1893.     A  verage  for  6  years. 

Crops  grown  in  rotation 22.2  bu.  31.99  bu. 

Grain  crops  only  grown 15.1  bu.  27.46  bu. 

Gain  from  rotation 7.1  bu.  4.53  bu. 

*  Purdue  University  agricultural  experiment  station,  Bul- 
letin 50,  April,  1894. 


124  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

As  no  manure  was  used  the  yields  are  natur- 
ally small,  but  the  balance  in  favor  of  the  ro- 
tation is  a  large  percentage. 

For  18  years  rotation  tests  have  been  con- 
ducted on  corn  at  the  Illinois  station."  Where 
corn,  oats  and  clover  were  grown  in  rotation  a 
decided  gain  in  yield  of  corn  was  secured  over 
those  plats  which  did  not  receive  a  dressing  of 
commercial  fertilizer,  that  were  not  in  rotation. 

Systems  of  rotation. — There  are  numerous 
rotations  inchiding  corn  which  are  satisfactory. 
On  the  Purdue  University  farm  a  rotation  of 
corn,  oats,  wheat,  clover  sown  on  wheat  in 
early  spring  of  third  year,  and  cropped  fourth 
and  fifth  years,  proves  quite  satisfactory.  To 
favor  large  cropping  stable  manure  is  well  dis- 
tributed over  the  clover  stubble  before  it  is 
plowed  in.  The  corn  has  a  fertile  field  and  its 
cultivation  cleans  it  of  weeds  in  good  shape  for 
the  crops  which  follow  that  receive  no  hoeing. 
The  oat  plant  is  a  gross  feeder,  and  following 
after  the  corn  it  finds  the  ground  well  enriched 
with  the  available  food  in  the  roots  and  stubble 
and  the  manure  previously  applied. 

For  the  Southern  States  where  red  clover 
will  grow,  Gulley  recommendsf  the  following 
five-year  rotation:   Corn;  clover  on  corn  stub- 

*  Illinois  agricultural  experiment  station,  Bulletin  No. 
30,  p.  357. 

t  First  Lessons  in  Agriculture,  1892,  p.  86. 


ROTATION   OP   CROPS.  125 

ble  in  spring;  clover;  oats  followed  by  cow- 
peas  the  same  year;  cotton.  Either  the  cotton 
or  oats  may  be  left  out,  and  a  four-year  rota- 
tion be  adopted. 

To  secure  the  most  economical  and  profit- 
able cropping  of  the  farm  the  practice  of  a 
judicious  rotation  is  absolutely  essential.  This 
fact  can  easily  be  demonstrated  in  noting  the 
practice  of  successful  farmers. 


126  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


CHAPTER  X. 


INSECTS. 

The  iDiu'iDOse  of  this  chapter  is  to  describe 
briefly  some  of  the  more  injurious  insects  affect- 
ing the  corn  plant  or  its  seed  and  to  suggest 
remedies  with  which  to  suppress  them.  The 
descriptions  and  remedies  are  those  given  by 
economic  entomologists  of  high  standing,  and 
more  especially  by  Prof.  F.  M.  AVebster,  ento- 
mologist of  the  Ohio  experiment  station;  Dr.  J. 
A.  Lintner,  New  York  State  entomologist,  and 
Prof.  S.  A.  Forbes,  Illinois  State  entomologist. 
From  a  valuable  paper  by  Webster  on  "  Insects 
Affecting  the  Corn  Crop"  ''•  numerous  important 
descriptive  abstracts  were  made.  The  State 
reports  of  Forbes  and  Lintner  were  also  freely 
used. 

Injuring  seed  after  planting. — The  seed  corn 
fly  {Phorhia  fusicejjs,  Zetty).  This  is  a  yellow- 
ish-white, footless  maggot,  about  one-fourth 
inch  long,  blunt  at  posterior  and  pointed  at 
anterior  end.    It  feeds  on  the  substance  of  the 

*  Report  Indiana  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  1885,  pp. 
180-216. 


INSECTS.  127 

swollen  kernel  in  the  ground.  It  has  not  proved 
very  destructive.  A  tarring  of  the  seed  before 
planting  will  doubtless  keep  off  the  maggot. 

Wire  worms  {Elateriche).  These  are  the  larvae 
(grubs)  of  the  common  snapping  beetles,  of 
which  there  are  many  species.  These  worms 
(Fig.  41)  are  greatly 
abundant  only  in  new- 
ly-plowed meadows.  fig.  4i.-wihh  wokm. 
They  eat  into  and  destroy  the  kernels  of  corn 
or  eat  off  the  germinating  shoot  or  roots. 
Lintner  says  the  best  preventive  in  infested 
fields  is  starving  out  by  crops 
of  buckwheat  or  iDeas."*'  Fall 
plowing  of  sod  land  is  thought 
desirable  by  mau^y  farmers,  the 
grubs  being  disturbed  and 
frozen  out.  Fig.  42  is  of  the  False  wire  worm 
(lulus). 

Affecting  the  roots.— Corn  jjlant  louse  (Aphis 
maidis,  Fitch).  Small,  pale  green  lice,  covered 
with  a  whitish  mealy  substance,  feed  below,  the 
surface  on  the  juices  of  the  corn  root.  Large 
numbers  of  these  will  be  found  about  the  roots 
of  one  plant.  Later  in  the  season  great  num- 
bers of  dull  black  and  green  aphis  are  found  on 
the  leaves,  husks  and  tassels  of  the  plant,  which 
are  the  same  insects  in  a  different  stage  of  de- 

*  Eighth  repoi-t  on  the  injurious  and  other  insects  of  the 
State  of  New  York  for  the  year  1891,  p.  283. 


128 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


velopment.  Ants  are  nearly  alwaj^s  found 
associated  with  the  aphis,  they  feeding  on  a 
liquid  known  as  honey-dew,  which  exudes  from 
the  body  of  the  louse.     There  seems  to  be  no 


Fig.  43.— Corn-Leap  Plant  Louse,  Ap/iis  mdidis,  Forbes.  A.  winged  female. 
£.  Wingless  female  that  gives  birili  to  young.    C  Pupa.    (After  Forbes.) 

effective  method  at  present  known  for  destroy- 
ing these  lice  on  a  practical  basis. 

Corn  root  ivorm  (Diahrotica  longicornis,  Say). 
The  developed  beetle  is  green  or  yellowish- 
green,  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  and  re- 
sembling in  form  the  striped  squash  beetle. 
From  the  latter  part  of  July  till  the  blossom- 
ing period  is  past  the  beetle  feeds  on  the  pollen 
and  silk.  When  ready  to  lay  her  eggs  the 
female  descends  to  the  ground  about  the  roots 
of  the  corn  and  deposits  a  considerable  number 
of  minute  white  eggs.    From  these  the  next 


INSECTS. 


129 


spring  hatch  out  minute,  active  j^vubs,  which 
begin  to  feed  at  once  on  the  corn  roots,  if  a  new 
crop  has  been  planted  on  old  ground.  The 
worms  follow  these  small  roots  to  larger  ones, 
into  which  they  burrow,  often  to  the  base  of 
the  plant.  AVhen  full  grown  the  worms  are 
nearly  white,  a  trifle  less  than  half  an  inch 
long  and  about  the  size  of  ordinary  wheat 
straw  just  below  the  head.  AVhen  they  reach 
full  growth  the  worms  leave  the  root,  crawl  to 
one  side  in  the  soil,  make  a  cell  there,  and 
transform  into  Avhite  pupa  (grub  stage),  which 
soon  changes  into  the  beetle  form. 

This  insect  has  done  great  damage  in  our 
corn  fields,  especially  in  the  Central  AVest.  In 
18S5  Prof.  Webster  noted  damage  to  the  corn 
crop  of  Moses  Fowler  of  Lafayette,  Ind., 
amounting  to  15  per  cent  of  the  entire  crop  on 
10,000  acres— a  total  loss  of  about  $16,000. --^ 

A  rotation  of  crops  is  a  satisfactory  method 
for  preventing  damage  from  this  insect,  as  has 
been  demonstrated  on  a  large  scale.  Wheat  or 
oats  jnay  be  substituted  for  the  corn  crop,  as 
this  insect  cannot  secure  food  from  their  roots, 
they  being  too  woody  and  tough.  The  first 
crop  of  corn  on  grass  or  clover  sod  is  not  usu- 
ally injured  by  this  pest,  although  numerous 
cases  have  occurred  where  the  corn  was  injured 
on  clover  sod. 


^Report  Indiana  Board  of  Agriculture  for  1885,  p.  188. 


130  INDIAN  CORN  CULTURE. 

White  grub  {Lachnosterua  fiisca,  Frohl).  This 
is  the  larva  of  the  common  brown  May  beetle 
or  June  bug.  The  beetles  deposit  small,  whit- 
ish eggs  about  the  roots  of  grass  which  in  about 
a  month  hatch  into  small,  brown-headed  grubs 
that  feed  on  the  roots  about  them.  During  the 
second  year  the  grubs  work  near  the  surface 
and  reach  their  full  growth  during  the  spring 
of  the  third  or  fourth  year.  They  are  most 
abundant  in  old  grass  lands,  and  when  this  is 
plowed  for  one  or  two  seasons  may  work  great 
damage  to  the  corn  which  may  be  planted  on  it. 
This  is  a  difiicult  insect  to  exterminate.-  Fall 
plowing  is  no  doubt  advantageous.  Pasturing 
land  in  the  late  summer  and  fall  with  pigs  will 
be  a  means  of  getting  rid  of  many,  then  plow- 
ing during  the  late  fall  or  spring. 

Affecting  the  stalk.— C?<7^  worms.  Cut  worms 
are  of  numerous  kinds,  all  of  which  belong  to 
one  special  group — the 
]<[octuid(i\  The  follow- 
ing are  characteristics 
common  to  nearly  all 
the  species,  according  to 
Lintner.* 

FIG.  H  -GLASSV  CHT  WORM.    Larva  ^hCU   f  ul  1   grO WU,  CUt 

otnadenaclevasutmx.    (After  Uiley.)  ^yoj-j^ig      mCaSUre       frOUl 

an  inch  and  a  fourth  to  nearly  two  inches  in 

*  Eighth  report  on  the  injurious  and  other  insects  of  the 
State  of  New  York  for  the  year  ls91,  p.  281. 


INSECTS.  131 

length.  They  have  16  feet,  of  which  the  three 
anterior  pairs  (true  legs)  are  pointed,  and  the 
five  remaining  pairs  (prolegs)  stout,  blunt,  and 
armed  with  minute  hooks  for  clasping.  In 
form  they  are  stout,  tapering  slightly  toward 
the  extremities.  In  appearance  they  are  usu- 
ally dull  colored,  greasy  looking,  dingy  brown, 
gray  or  greenish,  with  some  light  and  dark 
longitudinal  lines,  and  sometimes  W'ith  oblique 
dashes.  They  have  a  large,  shining,  red  or  red- 
dish-brown head.  The  first  ring  or  collar  bears 
a  darker-colored,  shining,  horny  plate,  as  does 
also  the  last  one,  known  as  the  anal  pkite.  The 
body  is  never  hairy,  but  the  several  rings  have 
upon  each  six  or  eight  small,  blackish  dots  or 
humps,  from  each  of 
which  a  short  hair  is 
given  out. 

The  cut  worms  do 
most  of  their  feeding  at 
night,  daring  the  day 
in  Fig. 44.  (After Kiiey.)  bciug  hiddcn  beucath 
stones,  sticks  and  rubbish.  Some  cut  worms 
feed  on  the  parts  of  the  young  plant- above 
ground  and  some  below. 

The  parents  of  cut  worms  are  moths.  These 
deposit  their  eggs  on  a  plant  near  by  the  feed- 
ing ground  as  a  rule,  although  they  are  also 
placed  on  fruit  trees.  The  eggs  soon  hatch, 
when  the  young  worms  drop  to  the  ground 


Fig.  45.— moth  op  Cut  Worm  shown 


132 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


and  enter  it,  where  they  feed.  Later  they  go 
deeper  into  the  soil  and  remain  there  over 
winter.  In  spring  they  come  to  the  top  soil 
again  and  feed.  In  a  few  weeks  they  become 
full-grown  worms,  when  they  make  cells  in  the 
soil,  in  which  they  locate  and  where  they 
undergo  a  change  to  pupa,  and  soon  after  de- 
velop into  the  moth. 


FiQ  46.— Moth  OF  Dingy  Cutworm   a  gratis  subgotliica.    (After  lUey  ) 

About  12  kinds  of  cut  worms  are  especially 
prevalent  on  corn.  On  new  sod  ground  the  cut 
worm  is  most  frequently  found. 

Numerous  methods  have  been  tried  to  pre- 
vent the  ravages  of  cut  worms,  but  as  a  rule 
they  are  more  or  less  unsatisfactory.  Lintner 
recommends  the  use  of  a  tablespoonful  of  salt 
scattered  over  each  hill  of  corn.''^  He  says  this 
method  has  been  used  with  considerable  suc- 
cess. The  explanation  of  this  protection  is 
that  the  salt  dissolves  and  is  taken  up  by  the 
roots  into  circulation  and  makes  the  food  un- 
palatable to  the  worms.    It  appears  to  the 

*  Eighth  report,  etc,  p.  239. 


INSECTS. 


133 


writer  that  great  care  should  be  used  in  apply- 
ing this  salt,  as  too  much  will  certainly  kill  the 
young  plants.  Li ntner  also  notes"  that  a  gen- 
tleman who  soaked  his  corn  in  copperas  water 
before  planting  was  not  troubled  hy  the  worms. 
A  bushel  of  coi-n  is  placed  in  a  tub  and  covered 
with  water,  and  a  pound  or  pound  and  a  half 
of  copperas  water  added^  which  has  been  dis- 
solved in  warm  water. 
This  is  stirred  among 
the  seed,  which  are  al- 
lowed to  soak  24  to  30 
hours. 

Prof.  J.  B.  Smith 
recommends  the  use 
of  kainit  (a  potash 
salt)  to  prevent  cut- 
worm ravages.-}-  Ex- 
periments of  his  gave 
favorable  results.  The 

Fig  47.— Gueasyou  BlackCut  Woum,  ■<        •       •  i  i  i   n       i 

Agrotis   ypsHon,  H.itt.     a,  cut   worm;   Kainit        SllOUlU        be 
h,  head  of  worm  from  front;   c,  moth. 

(After  Kiiey.)  broadcastcd  over  the 

field  just  before  planting,  as  in  spreading  fer- 
tilizer, for  such  it  also  is.  Riley,  Fletcher  and 
others  have  recommended  the  poisoning  of 
green  grass  or  clover  and  placing  it  in  bunches 
about  the  fields.    The  cut  worm  will  be  killed 


*  Eighth  report,  etc.,  p.  239. 

t  Bulletin  75,  Now  Jersey  agricultural  experiment  station, 
Nov  7,  1890. 


134  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

by  eating  the  poisoned  grass.     This  should  be 
done  just  at  nightfall. 

Stalk  hover  {Gortyna  nitela,  Guen).  A  full- 
grown  worm  is  a  little  over  an  inch  long,  l^luish- 
brown  above,  with  three  wdiite  lines  on  the 
back,  the  central  one  continuous,  the  others 
interrupted  for  a  considerable  space  at  the 
middle.-'^  This  worm  is  the  product  of  eggs 
laid  by  a  moth  on  grass  or  early-planted  grain. 
When  the  eggs  hatch  the  w'orm  crawls  down 


±  2 

FIG  48.— STALK  BouER,  <?o;-<y7ia?ii7eto,  Guen.  7,  moth;  2,  worm.  (After  Rlley.) 

into  the  stem  of  the  plant.  To  prevent  their 
ravages,  Webster  recommends f  one  ounce  of 
pyrethrum  powder  in  two  gallons  of  water,  or 
one  part  crude  carbolic  acid  to  100  parts  water. 
Spray  or  sprinkle  the  young  plants  so  this 
liquid  will  run  down  among  the  unfolded 
leaves. 

Chinch  hug  {Blissus  leucopterus,  Say).  This  is 
a  true  bug  that  is  about  three-twentieths  of  an 
inch  long  and  one-third  its  length  in  breadth. 

*F  M.Webster:  Bulletin  3,  Purdue  University,  April, 
1885. 

t  Report  Indiana  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  1885,  p.  192. 


INSECTS. 


135 


The  body  is  black  and  slightly  hairy  as  seen 
under  a  microscope.  The  wing  covers  are 
white  with  a  sub-triangular  black  spot  in  the 
middle  of  the  outer  margin  of  each  and  a  few 
black  veins  upon  their  middle.  The  feet,  claws 
and  enlarged  ends  of  the  antennae  are  black, 
while  elsewhere  the  antenna3  and  legs  are  dull 
3^ellow. 

The  chinch  bag  deposits  at  least  two  sets  of 
eggs,  one  in  the  fall  upon  the  crown  or  the 
roots  of  plants,  and  another  in  spring.  The 
eggs  are  very  minute  and  one 
bug  deposits  about  500  at  inter- 
vals extending  over  several 
weeks.  The  eggs  hatch  in  al)out 
two  weeks.  At  first  the  larva 
is  pale  yellow,  but  changes  to 
red,  except  the  two  anterior 
segments  of  the  body,  and  the 
T  legs,  which  are  yellowish.  After 

FIG.  49 -ADm.T  CHINCH  thc  first  uioult  it  becomes  bright 
sa'^y^'fAfterKueyT"*'  rcd  wltli  a  pale  baud  across  the 
middle  of  the  body.  After  the  second  moult 
the  wing  pads  begin  to  show  and  the  general 
color  gets  darker,  with  the  pale  band  still  con- 
spicuous. A  third  moult  develops  the  pupa 
with  distinct  wing  pads,  the  anterior  portions 
being  dark  brown  and  the  abdominal  portions 
grayish,  except  the  tip,  which  is  brown.  It 
takes  from  five  to  seven  weeks  to  change  from 


136 


INDIAN    CORN   CULTURE. 


the  egg  to  the  perfect  insect  where  winter  does 
not  interfere."' 

When  winter  comes  the  insects  seek  shelter 
under  sticks,  stones,  leaves  and  rubbish  of  all 
sorts. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  destructive  insects, 
especially  as  applied  to  wheat  and  oats,  and 
also;  though  in  a  lesser  degree,  to  corn.     Mr.  L. 


FIG  50.— Young  of  Chinch  Hug;  a  and  6,  etrga:  c,  youne;  e.  larva  after  first 
moult;  /,  larva  after  second  moult;  ijr,  pupa;  A,  leg  of  pupa:  i,  beak.  (After 
Ktley.) 

0.  Howard,  now  United  States  Entomologist, 
in  1887  estimated  the  losses  from  chinch  bugs 
in  nine  States  to  be  $60,000,000.  Walsh,  in 
1864,  estimated  the  loss  in  Illinois  for  that  year 
caused  by  this  bug  to  be  $73,000,000,  while 
Shinier  claimed  that  during  the  same  year 
three-fourths  of  the  wheat  and  one-half  of  the 
corn  of  the  Mississippi  valley  w^as  destroyed  by 
it,  involving  a  loss  of  $100,000,000.1 

*  Abstracted  from  an  article  oil  the  chinch  bug-  in  the 
second  report  of  the  New  York  State  Entomologist  for  1885. 

t  Second  i-eport  New  York  State  Entomologist,  1885,  p. 
166. 


INSECTS. 


137 


Many  different  methods  have  heen  attempted 
to  prevent  the  ravages  of  this  insect,  but 
each  one  is  more  or  less  unsatisfactory.  The 
area  grown  to  wheat  should  l)e  diminished. 
All  trash  about  infested  fields  should  be  as 
fully  burned  as  possible  in  fall^  winter  or 
spring.  Insecticides  may  be  used  to  advantage. 
Kerosene  emulsion,  diluted  to  about  five  per 
cent,  is  perhaps  the  most  effective  insecticide. 
To  make  the  emulsion  take  one-half  pound  of 
common  soap  and  dissolve  in  one  gallon  of  hot 
water,  after  which  add  to  the  boiling  mixture 
two  gallons  of  kerosene  and  churn  the  mixture 
violently  for  about  five  minutes  with  a  hand 
force  pump.  This  may  be  diluted  with  water 
to  make  30  gallons  for  use.  This  seems  to  be 
about  the  best  of  the  insecticides  for  chinch 
bugs. 

For  some  years  past  experiments  have  been 
conducted  to  propagate  among  chinch  bugs  a 
fatal  disease.  A  large  amount  of  work  has 
been  done. by  Prof.  F,  H.  Snow  of  Kansas  Uni- 
versity in  this  direction.  A  peculiar  fungi  be- 
iug  placed  in  contact  with  the  bug  soon  causes 
its  death.  Healthy  bugs  may  be  inoculated 
with  the  disease  and  set  at  liberty  in  the  in- 
fested fields  and  may  spread  the  disease  with 
such  great  rapidity  as  to  practically  annihilate 
the  bugs.  A  perfect  epidemic  of  the  disease 
occurs.     This  fungus  may  be  propagated  and 


138 


INDIAN    CORN    CULTURE. 


distributed  over  the  country,  as  done  by  Prof. 
Snow,  and  used  to  inoculate  bugs  where  neces- 
sar}^  The  work  of  Snow  has  been  most  en- 
coui-aging.* 

Clean  cultivation  is  most  essential  in  any 
case,  and  Forbes  recommends  heavy  fertiliza- 
tion of  lands  as  an  additional  safeguard.j 

Cor7i  bill  bugs  (Si^licuoiihorus).  There  are  a 
number  of  forms  of  these  bugs  which  are  known 
as  snout  beetles  or  bill  bugs.  They  are  all 
medium-sized,  dark-colored  insects.    AVith  most 


Fig  b\.— Con^  Bii.Ij  Bug,  Sphenophorusrobiistus.Uotn.   n.  larva;  6,  pupa; 
c,  beetle,  back,  view;  rf,  beetle,  side  view.    (After  Riley.) 

species  the  adult  insects  sink  the  beak  into  the 
stem  of  the  young  corn  plant  and  make  small 
cavities  in  it  into  which  the  eggs  are  deposited, 
where  they  hatch  later  on. 

One  of  the  most  destructive  corn -bill  bugs  is 
Sphenojphorus  ochereiis,  Lee.  Its  depredations 
are  mainly  confined  to  recently  reclaimed 
swamp  lands.    Webster,  in  discussing  the  life 

*  First,  second,  third  and  fourth  annual  reports  Director 
[Jniversity  of  Kansas  experiment  station,  1891,  1892,  1893, 
1894. 

t  Sixteenth  report  State  Entomologist  of  Illinois  for  1890. 


INSECTS,  139 

history  of  this  pest,*  from  which  the  following 
information  is  secured,  says:  ''There  is  the  best 
of  evidence  that  this  pest  has  for  several  years 
been  working  serious  injury  to  the  corn  crop 
planted  on  recently-drained  swamp  lands  in 
Indiana,  hundreds  of  acres  being  thus  de- 
stroyed," 

The  larva  is  white  with  brown  head,  the  lat- 
ter small,  body  becoming  very  robust  posteri- 
orly, so  much  so  that  it  appears  to  be  fully 
two-thirds  a,s  broad  as  long,  and  very  much 
wrinkled.  The  feet  are  lacking.  The  adult  is 
black  beneath,  but  varying  in  color  above  from 
pale  ochreous  to  plumbeous  and  cinereous. 
Length  one-half  to  nearly  three-fourths  inch. 
The  insect  passes  the  winter  in  the  adult  form, 
and  in  spring  feeds  on  the  tender  parts  of  stems 
of  reeds  and  rushes,  and  later  on  on  the  same 
parts  of  the  young  corn.  In  late  May  or  June 
the  female  burrows  into  the  earth  and  deposits 
her  eggs  in  or  about  the  bulbous  roots  of  a 
species  of  reed.  The  larvse  burrow  in  these 
bulbs,  which  are  often  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg 
and  very  hard,  and  transform  to  the  adult  in- 
sect therein,  appearing  on  the  rushes,  reeds  or 
corn  in  August  or  September.  This  species 
will  probably  never  breed  in  the  roots  of  corn. 

To  get  rid  of  this  species  the  best  method 
will  be  to  drain  the  land  thoroughly  and  get 

Hnmt  Life,  Vol.  II,  p.  132. 


140 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


rid  of  the  plants  it  breeds  in  by  burning  or  cul- 
tivating them  out.  Fall  plowing  lias  been  tried, 
but  I  am  not  informed  with  what  success. 

If  the  stubble  is  burned  in  spring  some 
beetles  of  the  other  species  may  be  destroyed. 
An  application  of  paris  green  to  the  young 
plants  may  be  of  benefit  by  preventing  injuries. 

Affecting  the  ear.  —  Corn  worm  (Heliothis 
armiger,  Hubn.).  This  is  also  known  in  the 
South  as  the  boll  worm,  as  it  injures  the  cotton 


m 


-iC^^^- 


KiG.  52.— The  ConN  Wokm  fTeliotliis  mmiger,  Hubn.    o,  6,  eggs:  c,  larva; 
(/,  pupa  In  cocoon;  e,/,  moth.    (After  Rlley.) 

boll.  The  adult  insect  is  a  medium-sized, 
heavj^-bodied  moth,  with  yellowish-gray  or 
clayey-yellow  fore  wings,  tinged  wdth  light 
olive-green,  marked  with  lines  of  darker  green 


INSECTS.  141 

and  dark  brown  or  black.  The  hind  wings  are 
of  "a  paler  shade,  with  a  broad,  blackish  outer 
band  enclosing  a  pale  spot  toward  .the  apical 
portion. 

Comstock  states  that  there  are  five  broods  of 
this  insect  in  a  season  in  the  South,  while  in 
the  latitude  of  ]\iissouri.  Southern  Illinois  and 
Virginia,  Riley  thinks  there  are  but  three. 

The  adult  insect  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  tip 
of  the  ear,  among  the  silk.  After  hatching  the 
larvae  feed  until  about  one-third  grown,  when 
they  begin  to  tunnel  through  the  kernels  under 
the  husks  toward  the  butt  of  ear.  In  Tennessee 
the  writer  was  unable  to  grow  sweet  corn  suc- 
cessfully owing  to  the  ravages  of  this  pest. 
The  grown  Avorm  is  about  one  and  one-fourth 
inch  long,  rather  robust,  tapering  toward  the 
head;  In  color  the  worms  vary  from  pale 
green  to  dark  brown.  There  are  several  black, 
shining,  elevated  tubercles  on  each  segment, 
each  bearing  a  short  brown  hair. 

The  full-grown  larvae  make  a  round  hole  in 
the  earth,  the  inside  walls  of  which  they 
cement  over.  At  the  bottom  of  these  chambers 
these  larvae  change  to  pup^e,  where  they  pass 
the  winter. 

It  is  recommended  to  plow  in  the  fall,  thus 
throwing  up  these  chambers  and  subjecting 
the  pupse  to  winter  exposure  and  destroying 


142 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


INSECTS. 


143 


them.     This  is  thought  to  be  quite  an  effective 
remed}^ 

Angoumis grain  moth  {Sitotroga cerealella,0\iY.) 
The  adult  insect,  a  moth,  is  small  and  slender, 
having  an  expanse  of  wings  a  little  over  one- 
half  inch.  The  body  and  fore  wings  are  dull 
3^ellowish  or  buff  color  and  satiny  appearing. 


ViG.Ji.—AyGOUMisGUAiK  UoT-a,Sitotrogacn'ealella,onv.  a,  full  grown  larva; 
6,  pupa;  c,  female  moth;  e,  egg;  ^,  corn  cut  open  showing  larva  at  worlt. 
(Alter  Klley^ 

The  front  wings  are  comparatively  long  and 
narrow,  freckled  with  black  scales,  which  are 
thicker  toward  the  tips  and  form  a  line  along 
the  plait  of  the  wings.  The  fringe  is  paler  in 
color.  The  hind  wings  are  blackish,  of  a  leaden 
lustre,  narrow,  very  suddenly  becoming  con- 
tracted to  a  point  near  the  tip.  Under  side  of 
wings  lead  color.  Front  legs  blackish;  hind 
legs  with  two  spurs  and  fringed  with  long 
hairs. 

The   egg  will   hatch   and  the  change  from 
larva  to  adult  occur  in  about  a  month's  time 


144  INDIAN    CORN   CULTURE. 

under  favorable  conditions.  A  number  of  eggs 
are  deposited  on  the  side  of  the  kernels.  In 
four  to  seven  daj-s  they  Avill  hatch,  and  the 
larva  will  then  burrow  into  the  kernel  and 
begin  to  feed  on  the  inside  of  it.  In  about 
three  weeks  it  is  full  grown,  when  it  is  about 
one-fifth  of  an  inch  long.  Then  it  burrows 
towards  the  outer  end  of  the  kernel,  leaving 
only  a  thin  cap  to  cover  the  cavity.  A  small 
white  cocoon  is  then  made  in  the  burrow,  and 
the  larva  in  this  soon  changes  to  pupa,  and 
after  a  short  time  emerges  in  the  moth  form. 

This  insect  is  especially  injurious  in  the 
South,  where  stored  corn  is  often  seriously 
damaged.  North  of  Kentucky  little  inj  ury  may 
be  expected  from  it,  as  it  is  a  warm  climate 
insect.  At  the  New  York  State 'experiment 
station  the  writer  had  considerable  experience 
wdth  it,  as  it  occurred  in  a  collection  of  corn  in 
the  museum.  These,  insects  were  brought  to 
the  museum  in  specimen  ears  shipped  from  the 
South  and  before  their  ravages  could  be  stopped 
nearly  the  entire  collection  was  ruined. 

In  the  field  there  is  no  known  method  of 
combatiiig  it.  To  destroy  the  insect  in  the 
seed,  place  the  grain  in  a  comparatively  tight 
room  and  pour  a  little  bisulphide  of  carbon  in 
among  the  corn.  This  soon  changes  into  a 
deadly  gas  and  will  destroy  all  insects  inhaling 
it.    But  to  save  the  seed  the  operation  should 


INSECTS. 


145 


be  repeated  as  soon  as  new 
moths  appear.  Tbe  bisul- 
phide of  carbon  is  very  in- 
flammable,  as  well  as 
poisonous,  so  great  care 
.should  be  taken  not  to  ex- 
pose a  fire  to  the  fumes. 
Being  heavier  than  air,  the 
fumes  will  sink  down 
through  a  pile  of  corn. 
The  fumes  of  this  gas  would 
also  destroy  other  insects 
injurious  to  stored  grain, 
including  the  grain  or  barn 
weevil,  and  the  grain  Syl- 
van us,  both  of  which  are 
common  in  the  South.  Ac- 
cording to  Webster  the 
worms  are  destroyed  at  a 
temperature  of  120  deg. 
F.,  for  four  hours,  so  if 
means  can  be  obtained  by 
Avhicli  to  heat  the  ears  to 
this  degree  a  very  desir- 
alde  thing  will  be  accom- 
plished. 

Other  Insects.— AV hi le 
there  are. numerous  other 
insects  which  injure  corn, 
they  do  it  to  so  small  an 


146  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

extent  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  devote  special 
attention  to  them.  GrasshopjDers,  blister  beetles, 
leaf  hoppers,  rose  bugs,  flea  beetles,  army  worms, 
etc.,  all  at  times  do  slight  damage  to  growing 
corn.  Usually  those  insects  which  feed  on  the 
growing  plant  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying 
the  leaves  with  some  form  of  arsenic  poison, 
such  as  paris  green,  london  purple,  etc. 


DISEASES.  147 


CHAPTER  XL 


DISEASES. 


The  Indian  corn  plant  is  appreciably  injured 
by  but  very  few  fungous  or  bacterial  diseases — 
in  fact  less  than  is  any  other  cereal.  Of  these 
smut  is  the  only  one  commonly  known  all  over 
the  United  States. 

The  following  diseases  are  the  only  ones  of 
sufficient  importance  to  especially  merit  atten- 
tion in  these  pages: 

Sm.ut.—(UsfiIa(jo  maydis,  Corda.).  Smut  as 
seen  by  the  farmer  is  either  a  distorted,  green- 
ish-white piece  of  vegetable  tissue,  or  a  mass 
of  black,  greasy  powder,  which  generally  ap- 
pears breaking  out  fi'om  an  ear  of  corn  or  from 
the  leaf  or  stalk  when  green  or  succulent. 

The  source  of  this  disease  is  a  simple,  tubular, 
minute  plant,  too  small  to  be  seen  by  the  naked 
eye,  which  grows  in  the  tissues  of  the  corn 
X)lant  and  feeds  upon  its  juice.  These  little 
plants,  of  which  there  are  vast  numbers,  branch 
out  in  tubular  form  when  they  find  a  spot  in 


148 


INDIAN    CORN   CULTURE. 


the  corn  plant  that  is  especially  nourishing. 
Then,  inside  of  these  tubes,  minute  bodies 
termed  spores  (seeds)  develop,  and  finally  the 
spot  becomes  a  mass  of  these,  an'd  then  all  of 


WiiU/ 


Fig.  56.-CORN  Smut  breaking  out  on  the  ear.    (After  Tulasne.) 

the  little  plants  excepting  the  spores  wither 
away.  The  dark-colored,  loose  smut,  is  mostly 
the  mass  of  spores,  of  which  there  are  countless 
numbers.  A  single  cubic  inch  of  them  would 
contain  over  fifteen  billions.    The  top  of  a  pin- 


DISEASES.  149 

head  that  has  been  moistened  will  bear  from 
30,000  to  50,000.* 

These  spores  are  reall}^  seeds,  and  if  the  right 
degree  of  moisture  is  supplied  they  germinate 
in  a  few  hours  and  produce  very  minute,  thread- 
like plants,  from  wdiich  soon  develop  "sporids." 
The  wind  may  blow  these  latter  upon  a  young 
corn  plant,  in  which  case  they  may  grow  into 
its  vegetable  flesh  and  develop  to  a  remarkable 
degree  and  eventually  break  out  in  the  com- 
mon form  of  smut. 

This  disease  is  distributed  through  the  agency 
of  the  smut,  and  the  more  the  spores  are  scat- 
tered about  the  more  prevalent  it  may  become. 
It  is  abundant  all  over  the  United  States  and 
in  the  corn-growing  parts  of  Europe.  AVhile 
considerable  damage  may  occur  from  this  fun- 
gus the  extent  of  this  is  not  generally  appreci- 
ated by  corn  growers.  Bessey  states  f  that  in 
Iowa  he  saw  a  piece  of  land  the  crop  of  which 
''fully  66  per  cent  had  been  destroyed."  This, 
however,  is  an  unusually  severe  case.  Prof.  W. 
H.  Brewer  says -.J  "I  have  never  seen  a  field 
which  has  been  injured  to  the  extent  of  one  per 


*  Bessey:  Bulletin  11,  Nebraska  agricultural  experiment 
station,  Dec.  18,  1889,  p.  29. 

t Bulletin  11,  Nebraska  agricultural  experiment  station. 

$  Tenth  census  of  the  United  States,  Vol.  Ill,  report  on 
the  cereal  production  of  the  United  States,  p.  107. 


150  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

cent,  but  I  have  heard  of  cases  in  the  year  1879 
*  *  *  where  the  damage  amounted  to  one- 
sixth." 

Smut  said  to  be  injurious.— Smut  is  gener- 
ally thought  by  farmers  to  be  injurious  to  live 
stock,  yet  but  little  satisfactory  evidence  is  at 
hand  to  prove  that  such  is  the  case,  as  it  is  com- 
monly eaten.  But  three  experiments  on  this 
point  have  come  to  the  writer's  knowledge.  Dr. 
Gamgee  for  three  weeks  fed  two  healthy  cows 
on  smut,  wet  and  dry.  The  wet  did  no  harm, 
but  a  loss  in  weight  followed  the  eating  of  the 
dry.  The.  animals  had  voracious  appetites, 
w^ere  fed  three  times  per  day,  and  ate  from  3  to 
12  oz.  at  a  dose.  In  three  weeks  they  ate  42 
lbs.  of  smut.*  Prof.  Henry  of  the  Wisconsin 
experiment  station  performed  a  similar  experi- 
ment on  two  cows.f  One  cow  ate  as  much  as 
32  oz.  of  smut  in  a  day,  and  the  other  up  to  64 
oz.  The  latter  cow  died  suddenly  the  next  day 
after  eating  a  large  amount  of  smut.  Prof. 
Henry  attributes  her  death  to  having  eaten 
this,  which  is  not  strange.  In  making  a  post- 
mortem examination  no  serious  derangement 
was  found  in  the  intestines,  but  Prof.  Henry 
thinks  the  brain  was  affected.  An  associated 
press  dispatch  in  the  daily  papers  of  Nov.  10, 

*Report  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  on  Diseases  of  Cat- 
tle in  the  United  States,  Washington,  1871,  pp.  73-76. 
t  Breeder's  Gazem,  Oct.  10,  1894. 


DISEASES.  151 

1894,  comments  on  the  sudden  death  of  cattle 
in  Illinois  and  says  that  farmers  attribute  it  to 
the  stock  eating  smutted  corn.  Prof.  Morrow, 
so  the  dispatch  says,  thinks  not,  as  they  had 
fed  a  steer  two  bushels  of  smut  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Illinois  and  it  had  not  injured  him. 

It  is  very  questionable  if  cattle  are  injured 
by  smut  in  the  fodder;  yet  it  wdll  be  safer  and 
better  to  keep  it  out  of  the  rations. 

Preventing  smut.— There  is  no  absolutely 
sure  method  of  preventing  the  appearance  of 
smut.  The  spores  on  seed  corn  may  be  de- 
stroyed by  the  use  of  sulphate  of  copper  (blue 
vitriol  or  bluestone).  A  strong  solution  in 
water  should  be  made,  using  about  half  a 
pound  of  the  sulphate  to  a  gallon  of  water. 
The  seed  may  be  soaked  about  half  au  hour, 
after  which  it  should  be  removed  from  the 
liquid  and  dried.  The  smut  may  also  be  killed 
by  soaking  the  seed  in  water  at  160  deg.  F.  for 
five  minutes. 

It  is  also  important  to  adopt  preventive  meas- 
ures. The  spores  wall  pass  through  animals  in 
the  manure  and  germinate,  so  that  is  a  reason 
why  stock  should  not  eat  it.  The  smut  in  the 
field  which  can  be  secured  should  be  burned. 
Rotation  of  crops  will  also  reduce  the  degree 
of  prevalence. 

Bacterial  disease.— This  is  a  disease  catised 
by  a  very  minute  class  of  plants  termed  bac- 


152  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

teria,  so  small  that  they  can  he  seen  only 
under  powerful  microscopes.  One  of  these 
plants  consists  of  a  single  cell,  with  an  outer 
coat,  and  inside  contents.  These  plants  in- 
crease by  dividing  in  halves  or  sections  and 
each  developing  into  a  perfect  plant,  or  by 
spores  w^hich  they  may  produce.  Bacteria  can 
withstand  great  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 
There  are  many  different  kinds,  one  of  which 
causes  injury  to  Indian  corn  by  developing  in 
its  tissues  and  juices. 

Symptoms.— The  disease  is  characterized  by 
the  plants  turning  yellow  and  sickly  while 
young.  The  roots  of  the  plants,  especially  the 
lowest  ones,  decay.  While  the  whole  plant 
will  be  affected,  the  injury  is  most  apparent  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  stem,  w^hich  will  be  dis- 
colored and  perhaps  dying.  Sometimes  the 
stem  appears  corroded,  and  semi-transparent, 
firm,  gelatinous  material  gathers  upon  these 
marred  places.  After  midsummer  the  leaf 
sheaths  become  discolored  and  spotted,  with 
an  appearance  of  decay.  If  these  sheaths  are 
stripped  oi^"  the  injury  is  made  more  conspicu- 
ous. These  injured  or  spotted  places  appear 
watery  and  sometimes  are  smeared  more  or  less 
wdth  a  thin  coating  of  the  gelatinous  matter. 
Finally  the  ears  are  attacked,  the  husks  wilt, 
turn  brown  and  become  packed  close  together, 
and  gummy  matter  exudes  from  the  tissues. 


DISEASES.  153 

Often  a  white  fungus  occurs  and  permeates  the 
entire  ear. 

This  disease  was  first  investigated  in  1882, 
and  most  of  the  information  known  of  its  char- 
acter is  derived  from  studies  made  of  it  by 
Prof.  T.  J.  Burrill  of  the  Illinois  experiment 
station.*  The  malady  is  widely  prevalent,  with- 
out doubt,  3'et  is  mainly  known  in  Illinois  and 
Nebraska.  It  is  thought  that  animals  eating 
cornstalks  affected  by  this  bacteria  will  die  of 
what  is  called  "cornstalk  disease." 

While  this  trouble  is  not  confined  to  special 
kinds  of  soils  and  conditions  it  has  been  found 
most  prevalent  on  rich  land. 

Thus  far  the  writer  knows  of  no  method 
proposed  to  prevent  the  occurrence  of  this 
disease. 

Rust  occurs  on  Indian  corn,  but  only  to  a 
slight  extent  and  at  uncertain  periods.  The 
loss  from  this  disease  is  probably  very  imma- 
terial. 

"See  Bulletin  6  of  that  station,  August,  1889,  pp.  165-J75. 


154 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


CHAPTER   XII. 


CHEMICAL   COMPOSITION  AND   DIGESTI- 
BILITY. 

Several  hundreds  of  analyses  of  Indian  corn 
have  been  made  at  agricultural  experiment 
stations,  by  the  United  States  department  of 
agriculture,  in  college  laboratories  and  else- 
where. Most  of  these  analyses  are  of  the  grain, 
although  some  are  of  various  parts  of  the  plant. 

Composition  of  grain. — All  of  the  available 
analyses  published  in  the  United  States.up  to 

TABLE  SHOWING  AVERAGE  CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  THE 
SEEDS  OF  THE  VARIOUS  CLASSES  OF  CORN. 


Dent 

Flint 

Sweet 

Pop 

Soft 

All  varieties  and 
all  analyses. . . 


.0  §. 

X 

jj 

1.1 

I1 

^ 

S 

1 

1 

r^ 

86 

10.6 

1.5 

10.3 

2.2 

70.4 

68 

11.3 

1.4 

10.5 

1.7 

70.1 

26 

8.8 

1.9 

•11.0 

2.8 

66.8 

4 

10.7 

1.5 

11.2 

].8 

69-.  6 

5 

9.3 

1.6 

11.4 

2.0 

70.2 

208 

10.9 

1.5 

10.5 

2.1 

69.6 

5.0 
5.0 
8.1 
5.2 
5.5 

5.4 


September,  1890,  showing  the  food  composition 
of  corn,  have  been  collated  and  published  by 


COMPOSITION   AND   DIGESTIBILITY.  155 

Jenkins  and  Winton,*  from  which  the  figures 
in  the  foregoing  table,  representing  averages, 
are  given.  These  represent  per  cents  in  fresh 
or  air-dry  material. 

Mr.  Clifford  Richardson,  as  Assistant  Chemist 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, made  a  special  study  of  the  chemical  com- 
position of  American  cereals.f  As  based  upon 
over  200  analyses  of  corn  from  different  parts 
of  America,  he  says:  "Corn  may  be  said,  there- 
fore, without  doubt,  to  be  very  constant  in  its 
composition  within  narrow  limits."  The  fol- 
lowing figures  are  taken  from  Richardson's  re- 
port, the  average  results  of  202  analyses  made 
in  1SS2  and  1883,  showing  per  cent  in  the  grain 
of  the  substances  specified: 

Ash 1.55  per  cent. 

Albuminoids 10.39  per  cent. 

Nitrogen 1.66  percent. 

Composition  of  mill  products.— The  com- 
position of  the  mill  pi-oducts  of  Indian  corn  is 
shown  in  the  following  figures,  which  are  aver- 
ages taken  from  Jenkins'  and  Winton's  tallies, 
previously  referred  to: 

*  A  Compilation  of  Analyses  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs, 
by  E.  H.  Jenkins,  Ph.  D.,  and  A.  L.  Win  ton.  Ph.  B.,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  ExiJeriment  Sta- 
tions.    Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  11,  1892,  p.  155. 

t  An  Investigation  of  the  Composition  of  American  Wheat 
and  Corn,  by  Clifford  Richardson,  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, Chemical  Division.  Bulletin  No.  1,  p.  69;  Bulletin  No. 
4,  p.  98;  Bulletin  No.  9,  p.  82.    Washington,  1883, 1884, 1886. 


156 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


Corn-meal.  Corn-and-cob  meal. 

Number  of  analyses. .  .77  7 

Water 15.0  per  cent 15.1  per  cent. 

Ash 1.4  per  cent 1.5  per  cent. 

Protein  (N.  X6.25) 9.2  per  cent 8.5  per  cent. 

Crude  fibre 1.9  per  cent 6.6  per  cent. 

Nitrogen-free  extract. .68.7  per  cent 64.8  per  cent. 

Fat 3.8  per  cent 3.5  per  cent. 

Composition  of  by-products. — Tn  these  same 
feeding  tables  are  given  analyses  of  the  by- 
products and  waste  material  of  corn,  including 
the  cob  and  refuse  of  starch  or  hominy  mills. 
The  averages  of  these  analyses  are  as  follows, 
in  per  cents: 


Corncobs 

Hominy  chops  . 

Corn  germ 

Gluten  meal  — 
Starch  feed,  wet 


?^ 

i^    - 

4M 

18 

•^ 
^ 
& 

f^ 

1 

10.7 

1.4 

2.4 

30.1 

54.9 

12 

11. 1 

2.5 

9.8 

3.8 

64.5 

3 

10.7 

4.0 

9.8 

4.1 

64.0 

32 

9.6 

0.7 

29.4 

1.6 

52.4 

12 

65.4 

0.3 

6.1 

3.1 

22.0 

0.5 
8.3 
7.4 
6.3 
3.1 


These  figures  show  corncobs  to  contain  some 
nutriment.  Gluten  meal  has  a  very  high  feed- 
ing value,  as  based  on  a  large  per  cent  of  pro- 
tein. 

Composition  of  green  corn. — The  composi- 
tion of  the  green  corn  plant,  of  silage,  and  of 
the  dried  fodder,  and  the  several  parts  of  the 
plant,  is  given  in  the  following  table  Avhich 
is  also  arranged  from  Jenkins'  and  A¥iuton's 


COMPOSITION   AND   DIGESTIBILITY. 


157 


tables  of  American  feeding-stuffs.     The  figures 
given  are  averages  in  per  cents: 


GREEN. 

2 
-11 

1 

1 

1 

ll 

^ 
fi^ 

Corn-fodder— 
Flint  varieties         

40 

10 

63 

7 

21 

126 

4 

4 

99 

35 
17 

16 
15 
60 

79.8 
77.1 
79.0 
7.^4 
79.1 
79.3 
66.2 
76.1 
79.1 

42.0 
30.0 
50.9 
68.4 
40.1 

1.1 
1.1 
1.2 
1.5 

1.3 
1.2 
2.9 
0.7 
1.4 

2.7 
5.5 
1.8 
1.2 
3.4 

2.0 
2.1 
1.7 
2.0 
1.9 
1.8 
2.1 
0.5 
1.7 

4.5 
6.0 
2.5 
1.9 

3.8 

4.312.1 
4.314.6 
5.612.0 
6.7  15.5 
4.412.8 
5.012.2 
8.719.0 
7.3  14.9 
6.011.1 

14.334.7 
21.435.7 

0.7 

Flint  varieties*        .           ... 

O.S 

Dent  varietic'* 

0..5 

Dent  varieties* 

0.9 

0.5 

All  vauietie"' 

0  5 

Leaves  and  husks  cut  green. 
Stripped  staiks  cut  green . . . 

1.1 
0.5 
0.8 

Dry  fodder- 
Fodder,  field  cured 

1.6 
1  4 

15.8  28.3 
11.017.0 
19.7  31.9 

0  7 

Stalks,  field  cured 

(1,5 

1    1 

1 

Digestibility.— The  chief  value  of  a  food 
depends  upon  its  palatability  and  digesti- 
bility. The  digestibility  of  some  of  the  parts 
of  the  corn  phmt  has  been  determined  in 
feeding  experiments,  while  that  of  other  parts 
has  been  computed.  The  per  cents  of  digesti- 
ble matter  of  some  of  these  parts  are  given  in 
the  following  table,  which  is  arranged  from 
figures  given  by  Prof.  W.  A.  Henry:}- 

*Cut  after  kernels  had  glazed. 

t  Special  Report  on  the  Diseases  of  Cattle  and  Cattle- 
Fetding,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  1892,  p.  496. 


158 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


CLASS  OF  CORN. 

Per  cent  digestible  matter 
in  corn  of 

Crude 
protein. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fat. 

Green  fodder- 
Flint  varieties 

1.5 
]  .2 
1.4 
1.2 

2.8 
2.0 

7.0 
7.1 

7.9 
7.1 

6.3 
6.5 
1.6 
9.3 
25.0 

12.0 
12.8 
12.0 
11.8 

29.5 
34.1 

63.4 
63.0 
61.4 
62.7 

61.8 
56.3 
43.9 
63.6 
49.4 

0.5 

Dent  varieties 

0  4 

0  4 

Silage 

U  6 

Dry  fodder  - 
Fodder,  field  cured 

1.0 

Stover,  field  cured 

Grain — 
Dent 

0.6 
3  9 

Flint 

3  9 

Sweet 

6  3 

Average  for  all  varieties 

4  2 

Mill  products  and  refuse— 
Corn-meal,  bolted 

3.0 

2.9 

0.3 

Corn  germ 

4.1 

Gluten  meal.  

5.6 

Digestible  matter  in  different  parts. — The 
accompanying  table,  the  result  of  researches  by 


Ears. 

Topped 
fodder. 

Blades. 

IJusTcs. 

Stubble. 

Total  dry  matter.. 

Ash : 

1,530 

450 

5 

10 

190 

232 
13 

197 

14 

6 

88 

105 
4 

426 
4 
6 

168 

246 
2 

569 
5 

Crude  protein 

Crude  fibre 

Nitrogen -free    ex- 
tract 

157 
1,343 

6 

241 

304 

Fat 

30 

13 

Total  digestible  matter  in  ears  of  one  acre 1,630  lbs. 

Total  digestible  matter  in  fodder  of  one  acre 1,642  lbs. 


Total  digestible  matter  in  entire  crop  of  one  acre.  ..3,172  lbs. 


COMPOSITION   AND   DIGESTIBILITY. 


159 


Mr.  H.  J.  Patterson,"  Chemist  at  the  Maryland 
experiment  station,  shows  the  yield  in  jDounds 
per  acre  of  the  digestible  matter  in  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  corn  plant. 

The  fertilizing  constituents  to  be  found  in 
the  corn  plant  as  a  whole,  or  in  its  several  parts 
or  by-prodncts,  are  given  in  the  following  table. 
These  figures  are  the  averages  of  many  pub- 
lished American  analyses,!  as  prepared  by  Mr. 
W.  H.  Beal,  of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Sta- 
tions, Washington,  D.  C: 


MATERIAL. 

1 

1 

•^^ 

f 
g 

78.61 

77.95 

7.85 

9.12 

10.88 

12.95 

8.96 

12.09 

8.93 

8.59 

8.10 

4.84 

4!9i 
3.74 
1.53 
1.41 

6.82 
2.21 
0.73 

0.41 

0.28 
1.76 
1.04 
1.82 
1.58 
1.41 
0.50 
1.63 
5.03 
2.62 

0.15 
0.11 
0.54 
0.29 
0.70 
0.63 
0.57 
0.06 
0.98 
0.33 
0.29 

0.33 

0.37 

V^'nfiflpr    with  pars 

0.89 

Stover,  without  ears 

Kernels                  

1.40 
0.40 

Pnrn-mfial                

0.40 

Com-and-cob  ineal 

0.47 

0.60 

TTnminv  fpfd               

0.49 

Gluten  meal              

0.05 

Starch  feed  (glucose  refuse). 

0.15 

These  tables,  bearing  on  the  composition  of 
Indian  corn  and  its  products,  will  give  the 


*  Bulletin  No.  20,  Maryland  agricultural  experiment  sta- 
tion, March,  1893. 

tFrom  table  IT,  Appendix,  Handbook  of  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Work,  Washington,  1893,  pp.  397-8. 


160  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

reader  nearly  all  the  information  necessaiy  to 
an  intelligent  knowledge  of  the  subject. 

Value  of  the  corn  crop. — The  great  value  of 
the  corn  crop  to  America  is  clearly  brought  out 
in  these  tables.  No  other  plant  we  grow  will 
produce  3,172  lbs.  of  digestible  food  on  one  acre 
of  land  at  so  little  expense.  No  other  cereal 
crop  yields  the  farmer  so  large  a  return  for  his 
labor  as  the  Indian  corn.  It  is  the  king  of  the 
cereals. 


THE   FEEDING   OF   LIVE   STOCK.  ICl 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


THE  FEEDING  OF  LIVE  STOCK. 

No  one  kind  of  food,  unless  we  except  milk, 
meets  all  the  requirements  of  the  domesticated 
animal.  The  composition  of  all  others  is  one- 
sided, and  it  is  essential  that  two  or  more  foods 
be  fed  so  as  to  give  a  ration  that  will  be  fairly 
balanced,  and  not  one-sided.  Some  foods  are 
more  nearly  perfect  for  certain  animals  than 
others,  but  combinations  usually  bring  about 
the  best  results  in  feeding. 

Constituents  of  foods.— The  chemist  who  an- 
alyzes a  food  finds  it  composed  of  several  groups 
of  substances  quite  different  in  character.  For 
the  feeder's  purpose  three  of  these  only  need 
be  considered.  First  is  the  p'otein,  consisting 
of  a  class  of  bodies  best  represented  in  the  com- 
position of  the  white  of  an  egg  or  in  perfectly 
lean  meat.  The  muscles  of  the  body  consist 
mainly  of  protein.  Another  group  is  known  as 
carbohydrates,  or  heat-formers.  These  consist 
mostly  of  starch,  sugar,  and  woody  fibre  or  cel- 
lulose. The  third  group  is  the  fat  of  the  plant, 
as  for  example  the  oil  extracted  from  the  cot- 
u 


162 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


ton  seed.  Those  foods  which  contain  a  large 
per  cent  of  carbohydrates  and  fat  are  usually 
termed  carbonaceous. 

Nutritive  ratio.— Foods  contain  these  three 
groups  in  different  proportions.  AV  hat  we  know 
as  a  rich  feeding  staff,  as  oil-meal^  for  example, 
contains  a  much  larger  percentage  of  protein 
than  is  possessed  by  the  avei'age  food.  An  an- 
imal cannot  eat  so  much  of  it  as  where  it  is 
specially  abundant  in  carbohydrates,  and  not 
in  protein.  The  relationship  existing  between 
the  protein  on  one  side  and  the  carbohydrates 
and  fat  on  the  other,  is  termed  the  nutritive 
ratio,  meaning  one  part  protein  to  so  many 
of  the  other  two  combined.  Where  the  ratio 
of  a  food  is  1 :2  it  may  be  termed  a  narrow  nu- 
tritive ratio,  while  if  it  is  1:12  it  is  a  wide  one. 
A  food  having  a  ratio  of  1:6  would  be  well  bal- 
anced^ perhaps,  but  if  it  was  an  extreme  on 
either  side  of  this  it  might  be  ill  balanced. 

Feeding  standards. — Many  feeding  experi- 
ments, made  both  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States,  have  shown  that  animals  require  prac- 
tically certain  amounts  of  each  one  of  these 
classes  of  foods  to  maintain  the  body  or  to  pro- 
duce growth.  Wolff,  a  German,  after  much 
experimentation,  published  a  table  of  feeding 
standards.  This  table  gives  the  number  of 
pounds  of  dry  matter  (food  without  moisture), 
protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat  required  by  the 


THE   FEEDING   OF    LIVE    STOCK. 


163 


animal  per  day,  per  head  or  per  1,000  lbs.,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances.  In  connection  with 
these  tables  Wolff  published  another  table 
showing  how  much  of  the  protein,  carbohy- 
drates, and  fat  were  digestible  in  the  different 
foods  available.  A  similar  table  has  lieen  pub- 
lished by  Allen  showing  the  digestibility  of 
American  feeding  stuffs.* 

Wolff's  feeding  standards  are  given  in  the 
following  tables: 

PER  DAY  AND  PER  1,000  LBS.  LIVE  WEIGHT. 


Oxen  at  rest  in  stall 

Wool  sheep,  coarser  breeds. 
Wool  sheep,  liner  breeds. . . . 
Oxen  moderately  worked. . . . 

Oxen  heavily  worked 

Horses  moderately  worked. . 

Horses  heavily  worked 

Milch  cows 

Fattening  steers: 

First  period 

Second  period 

Third  period 

Fattening  sheep: 

First  period 

Second  period 

Fattening  swine: 

First  period 

Second  period 

Third  period 


Dry 
matter. 


Lbs. 
17.5 
2C.0 
22.5 
24.0 
26.0 
22.5 
25.5 
24.0 

27.0 
2(i.O 
25.0 

26.0 
25.0 

36.0 
31.0 
23.5 


Digestible  food 
materials. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Lbs. 
0.7 


2.5 
3.0 

2.7 

3.0 
3.5 

5.0 
4.0 

2.7 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Lbs. 
8.0 
10.3 
11.4 
11.3 
13.2 
11.2 
13.4 
12.5 

15.0 
14.8 
14.8 

15.2 
14.4 


Fat. 


Lbs. 
0.15 
0.20 
0.25 
0.30 
0.50 
0.60 
0.80 
0.40 

0.50 
0.70 
0.60 

0.50 
0.60 


27.5 
24.0 
17.5 


*The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals,  by  E.  W.  Allen,  Farm- 
ers' Bulletin  No.  22,  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture,  p.  7,  1895. 


164 


INDIAN   CORN    CULTURE. 


PER  DAY  AND  PER  HEAD. 


Growing-  cattle — Age. 

2  to  3  months 

3  to  6  months 

6  to  12  months 

12  to  18  months 

18  to  24  months 

GrowiDg  sheep— Age: 

6  to  6  monlhs 

6  to  8  monti.s 

8  to  11  months 

11  to  15  months 

15  to  20  monlhs 

Growing  fat  swine— Age: 

2  to  3  months 

3  to  5  months 

5  to  G  months 

6  to  8  months , 

8  to  12  months 


Av. 

live 
weight 

per 
head. 

Lbs. 
150 
300 
500 
700 
850 

56 

67 
75 

82 
85 

50 
100 
125 
170 

250 


Total 

dry 

matter 


Lbs. 
3.3 
7.0 

12.0 
16.8 
20.4 

1.6 
1.7 
1.7 

1.8 
1.9 

2.1 
3.4 
3.9 
4.6 
5.2 


Digestible  food 
materials. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Lbs. 

0.6 

1.0 

1.3 

1.4 

1.4 

0.18 
0.17 
0.16 
0.14 
0.12 

0.38 
0.50 
0.54 
0.58 
0.62 


Carho- 
hydrates 


Lbs. 
2.1 
4.1 
6.8 
9.1 

10.3 

0.87 
0.85 
0.85 
0.89 
0.88 


Fat. 


Lbs. 
0.30 
0.30 
0.30 
0.28 
0.26 

0.045 
0.040 
0.037 
0.032 
0.025 


1.50 
2.50 
2.96 
3  47 

4.05 


Standard  confirmed  in  practice.— It  is  not 
to  be  expected  that  an  animal  will  receive  the 
exact  amount  of  digestible  .  material  in  the 
rations  as  specified  in  this  table,  but  a  reason- 
able approximation  to  it,  it  is  believed,  will 
give  the  best  results  in  feeding.  For  example, 
Wolff  gives  for  a  milk  cow  weighing  1,000  lbs. 
a  ration  containing  24  lbs.  dry  matter,  2.5  lbs. 
protein,  12.5  lbs.  car])ohydrates  and  0.4  lbs.  fat. 
After  examining  into  numerous  rations  fed  by 
prominent  dairymen  the  Wisconsin,  New  York 
and  Connecticut  experiment  stations  have 
found   the   above   amounts    recommended   by 


THE   FEEDING    OF   LIVE    STOCK. 


165 


Wolfi:  to  be  substantially  near  tbose  fed  by 
these  dairymen.  The  feeder,  however,  has  to 
keep  in  mind  that  he  is  dealing  with  individual 
animals  with  different  appetites  and  digestive 
capacities,  so  that  rather  than  attempt  to  feed 
each  by  rule  he  should  hardly  expect  the  feed- 
ing tables  to  more  than  assist  him  in  judiciously 
selecting  and  combining  the  foods  and  suggest- 
ing the  extent  to  which  they  may  be  fed. 

Ration  for  dairy  cow.--A  complete  calcu- 
lated ration  for  a  dairy  cow  is  shown  in  the 
following  table  given  by  Allen"  The  corn 
plant  plays  an  important  part  in  this  ration: 


Material  fed. 

1 

1 
It 
II 

1 

12  lbs.  clover  hay,  20  lbs.  co 
lbs.  corn-meal,  and  4  lbs,  w 

J.  Utj     o-liifpn  fpfjfi                      .  . 

■n  silage,  4 
heat  bran. 

Lbs. 

21.28 

8  G9 

24.97 

Lhs. 
1.66 

0.82 

Lhs. 

10.86 

1.75 

Lhs. 

0.57 
0..^4 

Total 

2.48 
2.50 

12.61 
12  50 

0.91 

24.00 

0  40 

This  is  a  close  comparison,  excepting  for  fat, 
which  is  not  so  important  as  the  other  two  in- 
gredients. 

Corn  a  carbonaceous  food. — Indian  corn  is 
a  carbonaceous  (carbohydrate)  food  rather  than 
protein,  and   in  making   feeding  rations  this 

*  Farmers  Bulletin  No.  22,  1895. 


166  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

forms  the  most  valuable  source  of  an  econom- 
ical carbonaceous  food  we  have. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  the  grain  of 
Indian  corn  is  a  most  valuable  food  for  domes- 
tic animals.  It  is  generally  relished  by  farm 
animals  and  imparts  a  quality  to  meat,  milk 
or  butter  which  ranks  it  among  the  most,  if 
not  tlte  most,  important  common  feeding-stuffs 
at  our  command.  During  recent  years  it  has 
been  well  established,  also,  that  the  mature 
plant,  independent  of  the  seed,  has  a  high  food 
value,  either  green  or  as  dry  fodder. 

Rations  illustrated  — AVithout  attempting 
any  elaborate  discussion  of  the  merits  of  Indian 
jorn  as  a  food,  and  presenting  a  large  number 
of  feedi'jg  rations,  the  balance  of  this  chapter 
will  be  devoted  to  a  few  illustrations  of  rations 
and  to  demonstrating  its  importance  when  fed 
on  the  farm  under  certain  conditions.  Many 
different  combinations  of  foods  might  be  dis- 
cussed, with  corn  as  a  part  of  each  ration,  but 
the  space  to  be  occupied  here  will  not  admit  of 
this.  The  iDurpose  is  rather  to  note  the  desir- 
able and  undesirable  use  of  corn  as  a  food  in 
common  practice,  so  that  a  brief  amount  of 
space  will  be  devoted  to  corn  as  a  food  for  each 
class  of  farm  animals. 

Horses. — In  that  part  of  the  country  where 
corn  forms  a  prominent  grain  crop,  as  in  the 
Central  West,  and  in  much  of  the  Southern 


THE    FEEDING   OF   LIVE    STOCK.  167 

States,  the  principiU  grain  fed  horses  is  corn  on 
the  ear.  Each  horse  is  given  a  numlier  of  ears 
at  a  feed,  deiDendent  upon  the  amount  of  labor 
he  is  performing  and  the  size  of  ear  and- char- 
acter of  grain  upon  it.  In  addition  to  this, 
timothy  hay,  especially  in  the  North,  forms  the 
balance  of  the  ration.  In  many  cases,  how- 
ever, clover  hay  is  fed.  The  writer  has  fed  cut 
cornstalks  instead  of  hay  with  much  success. 
The  horses  eat  the  cut  or  shredded  fodder  with 
relish. 

It  would  not  appear,  however,  the  best  prac- 
tice to  feed  horses  corn  alone  for  grain.  This 
food  is  too  heating  in  summer,  as  it  is  essen- 
tially a  heat  and  fat-forming  food.  Some  of  the 
corn  may  be  replaced  to  advantage  with  oats, 
which  is  more  of  a  muscle  former.  Stewart 
says*  the  rations  of  thousands  of  horses  on 
street  railroads  in  this  country  have  finally 
1)een  fixed.  The  ration  for  summer  is  half  oats 
and  half  corn,  ground  together,  16  lbs.  to  each 
horse,  with  12  lbs.  of  cut  hay.  In  winter  16 
lbs.  of  corn-meal,  with  the  same  amount  of  hay, 
forms  the  ration.  This  practice  he  specially 
refers  to  as  occurring  in  New  York  city,  but 
states  that  in  many  other  cities  the  corn  and 
oats  are  fed  the  year  through.  This  ration,  it 
is  to  be  understood,  was  fed  to  a  class  of  horses 
that  worked  hard  seven  days  a  week. 

*  Feeding  Animals,  1886,  p.  378. 


168  INDIAN    CORN    CULTURE. 

Where  corn  is  fed  to  horses  the  most  econom- 
ical results  may  be  attained  Ly  giving  chopped 
rough  fodder  or  ha}'',  moistened,  with  the 
ground  grain  well  mixed  with  it.  Corn-meal 
ought  never  to  be  fed  by  itself,  as  it  will  tend 
to  cause  colic.  The  digestive  fluids  are  not 
able  to  act  freely  on  compact  masses  of  the 
grain  alone.  Stewart  notes  that  "probably 
more  cases  of  horse  colic  arise  from  feeding 
corn-meal  than  from  all  other  foods  combined." 

A  committee  of  the  American  Institute 
Farmers'  Club  in  1855  made  an  examination  of 
the  rations  fed  stage  horses  in  New  York  city. 
Hundreds  of  animals  received  hay  and  corn- 
meal  only  for  their  feed.  The  .New  York  Con- 
solidated Stage  Co.  reported  on  335  horses, 
w^eighing  from  1,000  to  1,100  lbs.  each,  that 
traveled  on  an  average  211  miles  per  day.  They 
had  for  feed  8  lbs.  of  hay  and  17  lbs.  of  corn- 
meal  per  day.     This  meal  was  used  in  cut  feed. 

Stewart  recommends  the  following  ration  as 
one  more  satisfactory  Avith  him  than  anything 
else:'"  Grind  together  950  lbs.  oats,  950  lbs. 
corn  and  100  lbs.  flax-seed.  The  20th  part  of 
flax-seed  improves  the  ration  in  protein  and 
very  much  in  fat — 35  lbs.  or  1|  per  cent  to  2,000 
lbs.  This  is  well  balanced  as  a  working  ration, 
is  just  laxative  enough  for  health,  and  keeps 
the  coat  fine  and  glossy. 

*  Feeding  Animals,  1886,  p.  390. 


THE   FEEDING   OP   LIVE   STOCK.  169 

A  writer  in  the  Breeders'  Gazette  (Jan.  11, 
1893)  feeds  horses  to  be  shipped  to  city  markets 
with  half  oats  and  half  shelled  corn.  To  this 
grain  he  adds  one  pint  of  oil-cake  meal  per 
feed.  He  feeds  all  the  grain  they  will  eat  up 
clean,  and  liberally  of  hay  at  night  and  only  at 
night.  While  horses  should  never  be  fat,  those 
poor  in  flesh  must  be  fed  up  to  a  suitable  con- 
dition for  shipment. 

For  the  use  of  the  by-products  of  corn  for 
horses  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  experience 
of  Prof.  Caldwell,  given  further  on  in  this  chap- 
ter under  by-products. 

No  one  need  hesitate  at  feeding  horses  with 
the  dried  corn  plant  in  place  of  hay.  At  a  lib- 
eral estimate  three  pounds  of  fodder  may  be 
considered  equal  to  one  pound  of  timothy  hay. 
If  the  fodder  was  carefully  harvested  and  well 
cured  probably  two  pounds  would  be  its  equiv- 
alent. Silage  does  not  seem  so  well  suited  for 
horses,  although  a  small  amoant  of  it  may  be 
fed  with  safety  and  with  beneficial  results.  Ten 
or  15  lbs.,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  would  be 
ample.  See  reference  to  silage  for  horses  un- 
der chapter  on  silos  and  silage. 

Cattle.— 1^0  kind  of  grain  is  relished  by  cat- 
tle more  than  corn-meal,  while  well-preserved 
corn-fodder  or  silage  is  becoming  more  and 
more  popular  as  rough  feed  for  these  animals. 
For  dairy  cattle  this  food  is  unexcelled  for  giv- 


170  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

ing  good  quality  to  milk  or  butter.  For  this 
reason  corn-meal  is  extensively  fed,  although 
there  are  other  grains,  as  bnin  for  example, 
that  may  increase  the  milk  flow.  Among  the 
great  cattle  feeders  of  the  West  either  the  grain 
or  the  fodder  of  the  corn  plant  forms  the  lead- 
ing food  for  beef  production.  It  is  not  desir- 
able, however,  as  has  already  been  explained, 
to  feed  corn  entirely.  Bran  or  shorts  and  a 
little  oil-meal  may  be  added  to  the  grain  rations 
where  fed  to  milk  or  beef  stock  and  better 
results  secured.  This  question  was  asked  Prof. 
Henry  by  a  reader  of  the  Breeder's  Gazette: 
"With  corn  at  25  cents  per  bushel,  oil-meal 
$22  per  ton,  bran  and  shorts  $12  per  ton,  would 
you  recommend  feeding  a  so-called  balanced 
ration,  and  what  should  the  steers  eat  of  the 
mixture?"  This  is  the  reply:  "At  the  price 
named  for  corn  some  oil-meal  or  bran  or  l)oth 
can  be  fed  to  profit,  I  think,  keeping  the  ration 
largely  corn,  however.  Five  or  six  pounds  of 
bran  or  two  or  three  of  oil-meal  per  day  will 
aid  digestion  and  keep  the  steer  in  better  con- 
dition and  less  liable  to  get  off  feed  than  if  the 
ration  is  made  up  wholly  of  corn."  This  ration 
was  for  a  1,000-lb.  steer. 

In  making  a  study  of  100  feeding  rations  used 
by  owners  of  dairy  cattle  in  the  United  States, 
Prof.  AVoU  of  the  Wisconsin  station  notes'*-'  that 


*Farm  and  Dairyman,  January,  1885, 


THE   FEEDING   OF   LIVE   STOCK.  171 

corn  silage  Avas  fed  68  times,  corn-fodder  and 
stalks  35  times,  corn-meal  42  times  and  corn- 
and-cob  meal  14  times.  Excepting  iDran,  no 
other  grain  food  was  used  as  much  as  corn- 
meal,  and  corn  silage  was  fed  much  more  than 
any  other  kind  of  coarse  fodder.  From  these 
100  rations  the  writer  selects  the  following  as 
representing  a  notable  use  of  the  corn  plant  or 
its  products.  Where  corn  silage  is  fed  it  is 
assumed  that  it  contains  the  grain  that  was  on 
the  plant: 

(1)  40  lbs.  corn  silage,  7  lbs.  hay,  1  lb.  straw,  2  lbs,  oil- 
meal,  2  lbs.  corn-and-cob  meal,  2  lbs.  wheat  bran. 

(2)  30  lbs.  corn  silage,  8  lbs.  hay,  5  lbs.  corn-fodder,  4  lbs. 
oats,  2  lbs.  pea  meal. 

(.3)  40  lbs.  corn  silage,  15  lbs.  hay,  5  lbs.  bran,  2  lbs.  cotton- 
seed meal,  3  lbs.  corn-meal. 

(4)  50  lbs.  corn  silage,  9  lbs.  clover  hay, 

(5)  32i  lbs.  corn  silage,  6  lbs.  clover  hay,  3  lbs,  corn-1'odder, 

5  lbs.  corn-meal,  4  lbs,  shipstulT,  2  lbs.  oil-meal, 

(6)  24  lbs,  corn-fodder,  5  lbs,  corn-meal,  3i  lbs.  bran,  U 
lbs.  oil-meal,  i  lb.  cotton-seed  meal. 

The  above  rations  are  not  given  as  perfect 
ones,  but  as  representing  some  of  those  fed  by 
prominent  dairymen  of  the  country. 

The  late  Pmf.  E.  W.  Stewart  gave  much 
attention  to  feeding  problems.  The  five  fol- 
lowing rations  were  recommended  by  him  for 
the  purposes  specified:'- 

For  fattening  cattle,  1,000  Ihs.  weight:    20  lbs.  corn-fodder, 

6  lbs.  corn-meal,  6  lbs.  linseed  cake. 

*  Bulletin  No.  38,  Wisconsin  agricultural  experiment  sta- 
tion, p.  44, 


172  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

For  dairy  cattle,  1,000  lbs.  weight:  (J)  10  lbs.  corn-fodder,  10 
lbs.  oat  straw,  2  lbs.  linseed-meal,  4  lbs.  malt  sprouts,  10  lbs. 
oat  and  corn-meal. 

(2)  60  lbs.  corn  silage,  5  lbs.  hay,  2  lbs.  linseed-meal,  4  lbs. 
bran. 

(3)  18  lbs.  corn-fodder,  8  lbs.  wheat  bran,  4  lbs.  cotton-seed 
meal,  4  lbs.  corn-meal. 

(4)  17  lbs.  clover  haj'^,  .3  lbs.  wheat  bran,  10  lbs.  corn-meal. 

The  Avriter  has  fed  very  young  calves  skim- 
milk  in  which  was  stirred  2  to  4  oz.  of  veiy  fine 
corn-meal  per  feed,  with  satisfactory  resultis. 
Numerous  old  feeders  drop  a  handful  of  shelled 
corn  in  the  milk  bucket  when  feeding  calves, 
a.nd  they  soon  learn  to  clean  up  the  gi-ain  with 
avidity. 

Sheep.— In  the  AVest,  shelled  corn  is  more 
often  fed  to  sheep  than  any  other  kind  of  grain, 
a  pint  a  day  in  a  general  way  being  given  ma- 
ture animals,  although  many  feed  much  hea\^ier 
in  finishing  for  the  market.  It  is  an  interest- 
ing fact  that  while  if  mature  cattle  are  fed 
shelled  corn  some  of  it  will  pass  through  them 
whole,  sheep  will  digest  the  kernel  entirel}^ 

Feeding  experiments  on  sheep  have  been  un- 
dertaken at  the  Michigan  station  by  Smith  and 
Mumford  to  an  extensive  degree.*  Dui'ing  the 
winter  of  1893-94  125  lambs  were  divided  in 
nine  lots  and  fed  different  rations  for  fattening. 
In  all  of  these  rations  but  one  corn  was  fed,  as 


*Bulletin  113,  Michigan  agricultural  experiment  station, 
October,  1894. 


THE   FEEDING   OF   LIVE    STOCK. 


173 


is  shown  in  the  following  table,  which  gives  a 
summary  of  the  results  of  the  experiment. 
These  figures  refer  to  the  average  eif ects  of  the 
food  per  lamb  per  lot: 


1 

RATION. 

Weekly 
gain. 

Cost  of 

1  lb. 
(/am— 
cents. 

Powids 

dry 
matter 
led  to  1 
lb.  gain 

Protein 
led  per 
day  per 
1000  lbs. 

Carbohy- 
drates fed 
per  day 
per  1000 
lbs. 

Nutrl. 

live 
ratio. 

1 

3 

2.61 

r-s 

1.97 
1.94 
1.65 
1.58 

4.6 
4.6 
5.3 
5.1 
5.3 
5.4 
6.3 
6.7 
0.8 

7.02 
6.41 
6.72 
6.99 
9.13 
7.64 
8.01 
8.57 
10.03 

2  0 
2.1 
2.7 
2.8 
2.5 
2.1 
2.7 

2.6 

16.0 
16.7 
16.1 
15.7 
14.8 
15.5 
15.0 
15.7 
16.1 

1:8 

1:8 

Corn,  oU-meal  and  roots.. 

1:6 
1:5.6 

>; 

1:6 

6 

7 
8 
9 

Dorn  nnd  wheat 

Wheat  nnd  oil-meal 

Corn  fself  feed) 

Corn  and  bran  (self  feed). 

1:7.5 
1:5.5 
1:7.9 
1:6.2 

It  wall  be  noticed  that  the  best  results  in  cost 
of  one  pound  of  gain  occurred  where  corn  or 
corn  and 'roots  were  fed.  The  other  feeds  were 
somewhat  more  expensive. 

At  the  Wisconsin  station  a  ration  of  shelled 
corn,  silage,  and  cut  corn-fodder,  fed  fattening 
wethers,  yielded  the  cheapest  gain.  One  hun- 
dred pounds  of  gain  cost  $3.46  in  1890  at  this 
station  when  fed  this  ration.  In  1891  the  same 
kind  of  ration  made  100  lbs.  of  gain  cost  $3.70. 
This  ration  was  1.3  lbs.  corn-fodder,  0.8  lb.  corn 
silage,  and  1.3  lbs.  shelled  corn  per  day  and  head. 
A  ration  of  corn  and  oats,  equal  parts  by  weight, 
clover  silage  and  clover  hay,  made  the  cost  of 
100  lbs.  of  gain  $4.01.  A  ration  of  oil-meal  and 
oats,  clover  silage  and  clover  hay,  made  100  lbs. 
gain  cost  $6.09.  The  wethers  receiviug  the  clover 
and  oats  and  oil-meal  produced  more  wool  than 


174  INDIAN   CORN    CULTURE. 

the  corn-fed  ones,  hut  this  increased  weight 
was  chiefly  due  to  increase  in  yolk. 

Pregnant  ewes  should  not  be  fed  a  fattening 
food  like  corn.  In  fact  corn  is  essentially  a 
fattening  food  for  sheep.  If  this  end  is  not  de- 
sired, then  oats,  bran,  and  oil-meal  may  be  fed 
to  better  advantage,  along  with  roots  or  silage. 

Writing  some  years  ago"  Mr.  F.  D.  Curtis, 
then  a  well  known  student  of  sheep  husbandry, 
said: 

"No  argument  can  now  convince  me  that  corn  is  a  good 
kind  of  grain  to  give  slieep  to  make  them  grow  well  or  fit 
them  for  the  lambing  season.  A  very  little  corn  will  do 
mixed  with  other  grain.  *  *  *  Corn  makes  the  sheep 
fevery,  and  this  dries  the  wool,  makes  it  brittle  and  checks 
its  growth.  It  inflames  the  udders  of  the  ewes  and  makes  a 
big  show  of  milk,  whei'cas  it  is  actually  mere  fever,  inflam- 
mation and  swelling.  It  makes  the  lambs  weak  and  tends  to 
cause  the  ewes  to  forsake  them,  or  not  to  own  them." 

It  is  well  to  hear  both  sides  of  this  question, 
but  it  is  practically  true  that  the  grain  of  corn 
should  not  be  fed  pregnant  animals  of  any 
class,  sheep  as  w^ell  as  others,  especially  .to- 
ward parturition.  Bran  or  oats  are  much  bet- 
ter at  this  time.  But  for  promoting  the  laying 
on  of  flesh  corn  is  a  superior  feed. 

Corn-fodder  and  silage  have  not  as  a  rule 
been  largely  fed  sheep,  but  their  use  is  becom- 
ing more  and  more  common.  Either  one  of 
these  coarse  foods  may  be  fed  sheep  with  sig- 

*Coimtry  Gentleman,  Jan.  29,  1885. 


THE   FEEDING   OF   LIVE   STOCK.  175 

nal  success.  Mr.  A.  0.  Fox,  one  of  the  most 
extensive  owners  of  Shropshire  sheep  in  Amer- 
ica, writing  of  feeding  shredded  fodder,  says  in 
a  recent  letter:* 

"  When  I  first  put  the  ewes  into  winter  quarters  upon  the 
dry  fodder  I  feared  they  would  not  relish  it,  but  I  soon  found 
they  took  to  it  even  more  kindly  than  to  good  hay.  They  ate 
it  ravenously  and  would  fill  themselves  to  perfect  satisfaction 
and  lie  down  in  contentment  to  sleep.  I  am  now  thoroughly 
convinced  that  they  have  done  better  upon  the  corn-fodder 
ration  than  they  would  have  done  upon  good,  bright  mixed 
clover  and  timothy  hay.  The  corn-fodder  did  not  have  the 
slightest  constipating  effect.  I  have  fed  the  lightest  grain 
rations  this  winter  that  I  ever  gave  my  ewes  and  they  are  in 
fine  bloom.  Their  fleeces  are  much  cleaner  than  if  they  had 
been  fed  hay,  and  as  for  lambing,  we  are  now  well  into  the 
most  successful  lambing  season  we  ever  experienced;  98  ewes 
have  to-day  153  lambs,  which  you  will  see  is  160  per  cent. 
Every  lamb  is  sti'ong  and  hearty  from  birth.  The  ewes  are 
experiencing  no  trouble  with  their  udders,  and  in  fact  I  do 
not  see  any  objection  to  confining  them  exclusively  to  corn- 
fodder  instead  of  hay." 

At  the  Wisconsin  station  corn  silage  has 
been  fed  wether  lambs  and  suckling  ewes  with 
most  satisfactory  results.  In  the  1893  report 
of  the  station  Prof.  Craig  says,  where  fed 
wethers,  "the  corn  silage,  considering  its 
action  as  a  food  and  the  fact  that  it  can  be 
preserved  cheaper  and  better  than  the  clover 
silage,  was  the  most  satisfactory."  Further, 
in  referring  to  this  food  for  breeding  ewes,  he 
says:     "Of  the  succulent  fodders,  the  best  re- 


Breeders  Gazelle,  March  13,  1895. 


176  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

suits  were  secured  from  feeding  corn  silage. 
It 'is  cheap,  the  ewes  like  it,  and  they  can 
easily  be  kept  in  a  healthy  condition  when  it 
forms  part  of  the  ration.  The  only  danger 
lies  in  the  fact  that  it  may  contain  too  much 
corn  for  breeding  ewes."  At  the  Michigan  and 
Cornell  University  stations  silage  has  also  been 
fed  with  success.  There  is  plenty  of  good  evi- 
dence in  the  agricultural  press  of  the  past  ten 
years  demonstrating  that  corn  silage  is  a 
valuable  succulent  food  for  sheep. 

Swine.— Being  the  cheapest  food  available  to 
the  corn-grower  in  the  West,  most  of  the  hogs 
shipped  into  the  market  have  been  raised  and 
fattened  on  corn  as  the  only  grain  food.  In  the 
past,  however,  pigs  have  been  fed  corn  too  ex- 
clusively. Numerous  experiments  have  shown 
that  better  results  are  secured  where  some 
other  grain  is  fed,  using  corn,  however,  as  the 
principal  food.  Prof.  Henry  at  the  Wisconsin 
experiment  station  has  probably  conducted  the 
most  extensive  feeding  experiments  on  swine 
extant.  His  work  emphasizes  the  importance 
of  using  other  foods  in  connection  Avith  corn. 
Brood  sows  should  be  fed  lightly  of  this  and 
mainly  with  bran,  shorts  or  some  such  food,  be- 
fore and  at  farrowing  time,  to  get  the  best 
results.  Pigs  fed  corn  exclusively  lack  the 
strength  of  bone  and  desirable  meat  quality 
that  is  i^ossessed  by  those  that  receive  in  con- 


THE    FEEDING    OF   LIVE   STOCK. 


177 


nection  with  the  corn  some  food  rich  in  pro- 
tein and  ash.  The  following  table,  from  the 
eleventh  annual  report  of  the  Wisconsin  sta- 
tion, contains  in  concise  shape  much  valuable 
information  bearing  on  the  question  of  amount 
of  food  required  to  produce  100  lbs.  of  pork.  Jt 
is  to  be  noted  here  that  corn  is  the  important 
orrain  factor  in  these  rations: 


KIXD  OF  FOOD. 


Whole  corn 

CorD-meal 

Corn-meal 

Barley  mcnl 

Shorts 

Sweet  sklm-mllk 

]4  corn-oaeal,  }-i  shorts  (dry) 
J^  corn-rueal,  hi  6hortB(wet) 
Corn-meal  and  sklm-mllk.. 
Corn-meal  and  skim-mllk. . 
Corn-meal  and  Bkim-mllk.. 


Time  year. 

trials 

No. 
ani- 
mals. 

Average 

weight  at 

beginning 

t?ial. 

Winter 

Summer 

Winter 

Winter 

Summer 

Summer 

Fall 

Full 

3 
5 

3 

8 
12 

8 
12 

4 

72 
12 

229  lbs. 

71  lbs. 
17T  lbs. 
159  lbs. 

58  IbB. 

66  lbs. 
laT  lbs. 
136  lbs. 

Summer 

10 

95  lbs. 

Summer 

10 

254  lbs. 

Summer 

10 

251  lbs. 

Food  required 

Jor  100  lbs. 

gain. 

784  IbB, 

534  lbs. 

617  lbs. 

607  lbs. 

525  11.8. 
1,877  lbs. 

531  lbs. 

431  lbs. 
J  147  meal 
1  892  milk 
J  379  meal 
]  189  milk 
j  432  meal 
1216  milk 


By  this  table  it  will  ]dg  seen  that  far  less  corn 
and  shorts  were  required  to  make  100  lbs.  of 
gain  than  where  corn  was  fed  alone,  and  the 
showing  is  much  better  than  that  made  by 
corn-meal  alone.  The  first  ration  also  has  the 
advantage  of  being  much  the  cheapest  of  the 
three. 

The  practice  obtains  to  a  large  extent  of  feed- 
ing steers  corn  on  the  ear  and  letting  pigs  fol- 
low after  and  feed  on  the  grain  which  passes 
through  the  steers  undigested.  AVhere  steers- 
are  thus  fed  this  is  unquestionably  the  most 


178  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

economical  practice.  At  the  Wisconsin  station 
a  bushel  of  shelled  corn  made  11.4  lbs.  of  pork 
when  fed  alone  to  pigs,  while  a  bushel  fed  to 
them  when  running  with  corn-fed  steers  made, 
with  the  help  of  the  droppings  of  the  steers, 
17.6  lbs.,  or  over  one-half  more. 

Corn- and- cob  meal  vs.  corn -meal. —The 
question  is  often  asked  as  to  which  is  the  more 
valuable  food,  corn  and  cob  ground  together  or 
corn-meal  alone.  Considerable  experimental 
feeding  has  been  conducted  to  throw  light  on 
this  question,  and  very  generally  the  informa- 
tion secured  favors  the  grinding  of  the  corn  and 
cob  together.  It  is  assumed  that  the  pure  meal 
packs  in  the  digestive  organs  and  is  not  so 
readily  permeated  by  the  digestive  fluids  as  is 
the  corn-and-cob  meal,  the  cob  making  the 
mass  more  porous. 

At  the  Maine  experiment  station  Jordan  fed 
two  lots  of  pigs  81  da}^^^  one  receiving  corn- 
and-cob  meal,  the  other  pure  meal.  There  was 
but  little  difference  in  the  gain  made  by  each 
lot.  Shelton  at  the  Kansas  station  found  that 
it  required  650  lbs.  of  corn-and-cob  meal  to 
make  100  lbs.  of  gain  when  fed  to  pigs,  wdiile  it 
required  670  lbs.  of  pure  meal  to  make  an  equal 
gain.  In  a  steer- feeding  experiment  Prof.  Shel- 
ton also  secured  results  favorable  to  the  use  of 
the  cob  with  the  corn. 

General    testimony  seems  to  show  that  a 


THE   FEEDING   OF    LIVE   STOCK.  179 

pound  of  corn-and-cob  meal  has  the  same  feed- 
ing value  as  a  pound  of  pure  corn-meal.  In 
this  connection  it  is  important  to  grind  the 
cob  finely.  The  writer  has  had  difficulty  in 
successfully  feeding  corn-and-cob  meal  to  pigs 
when  the  cob  was  fiaky  or  coarse,  as  they  re- 
fused to  eat  it  unless  well  milled. 

The  by-products  of  the  corn  plant  embrace 
most  important  and  valuable  feeding-stuffs. 
The  glucose  and  starch  factories,  distilleries 
and  hominy  mills  produce  by-products  from 
the  corn  grain  that  are  used  for  stock  food  on 
an  extensive  scale.  They  include  gluten  meal, 
gluten  flour,  gluten  feed,  glucose  meal^  glucose 
feed,  maize  or  starch  feed,  sugar  feed  or  meal 
and  grano-gluten.  These  are  produced  by  dif- 
ferent methods  of  manufacture  and  so  vary 
widely  in  composition.  Quoting  from  Allen:* 
The  corn  is  soaked  until  it  is  swollen  and  soft, 
and  is  passed  through  the  mill  while  wet,  the 
hulls  and  germs  of  the  corn  being  rubbed  off. 
In  some  cases  the  starch  is  separated  froni  this 
mass  by  means  of  running  water  and  the  wet 
residue  is  dried  and  sold  as  gluten  feed.  In 
other  cases  the  mass  after  grinding  is  bolted, 
the  starch  and  gluten  passing  through,  while 
the  husk  and  germ  remain  behind.  In  some 
factories  the  latter  (husk  and  germ)  are  dried 
and  sold  as  corn-germ  feed,  corn-germ  meal, 

*  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  22,  p.  16,  The  Feeding  of  Farm 
Animals. 


180  INDIAN  CORN  CULTURE. 

etc.  In  others  the  material  is  treated  to  ex- 
tract the  oil  from  the  germ  and  then  sold 
under  the  name  of  maize  feed.  The  material 
which  passes  the  bolting  cloth  is  treated  to 
separate  most  of  the  starch,  and  the  residue  is 
sold  as  gluten  meal,  cream  gluten,  etc.  The 
Chicago  gluten  meal,  it  is  said,  has  had  a  part 
of  the  fat  extracted  from  it.  In  some  cases  the 
gluten  meal  is  mixed  with  the  hulls  and  germs 
without  the  oil  being  extracted.  This  is  said 
to  be  the  case  with  Buffalo  gluten  feed.  These 
materials  should  not  be  compared  with  grano- 
gluten,  which  is  a  dried  distillery  refuse.  The 
residues  from  these  factories  are  frequently 
sold  in  their  wet  condition,  containing  from  60 
to  70  per  cent  of  water,  under  the  names  of  wet 
starch  feed,  sugar  feed,  glucose  feed,  etc.  These 
wet  products  must  be  used  at  once,  as  they 
ferment.  The  dried  products  from  the  same 
factory  often  vary  considerably  in  composition. 
Owing  to  these  variations,  and  to  the  fact  that 
there  is  such  a  variety  of  names  for  these  pro- 
ducts it  is  difficult  to  make  any  helpful  class- 
ification; the  farmer  can  only  be  certain  of 
what  he  is  buying  when  he  buys  on  a  guar- 
anty of  composition  or  from  lots  that  have  been 
analyzed. 

Hominy  chop,  meal  and  feed  are  by-products 
from  the  manufacture  of  hominy  and  contain 
the  germ  and  'coarser  portions  of  the  corn. 


THE   FEEDING   OF   LIVE    STOCK.  181 

The  composition  of  a  nunilier  of  these  feeds 
is  given  further  on  in  this  chapter.  The  wet 
foods  are  undesirable  for  summer  use,  unless 
fed  when  perfectly  sweet,  as  they  soon  become 
badly  fermented  and  offensive.  If  the  dry  pro- 
duct can  be  bought  it  is  much  preferable.  The 
writer  has  fed  wet  starch  feed,  and  when  sweejt 
it  is  eaten  with  relish,  but  the  same  product 
freed  of  excess  moisture  he  found  to  be  more 
satisfactory.  He  has  also  used  gluten  and 
hominy  feeds.  The  former  is  high  in  protein 
and  serves  as  a  valuable  substance  to  balance 
up  with  carbonaceous  material,  such  as  corn- 
meal.  Hominy  feed  contains  much  less  pro- 
tein, but  it  is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  corn 
by-products  that  the  writer  has  ever  used  in 
feeding  cattle.  Gluten  feed  is  not  relished  by 
cattle,  in  the  author's  experience,  as  generally 
as  the  hominy  feed. 

Testimony  from  users  of  by-products.— 
Four  well-known  feeders  of  dairy  cattle  con- 
tribute articles  on  feeding  by-products  of  corn 
to  the  Breeder's  Gazette  of  Sept.  5,  1894.  The 
following  quotations  from  three  of  these  arti- 
cles are  of  interest. 

Prof.  W.  H.  Caldwell,  who  had  charge  of  the 
Guernsey  herd  in  the  dairy  cattle  tests  at  the 
World's  Columbian  Exposition,  says:  I  have 
used  gluten  meal,  both  the  Chicago  and  Buffalo 
brands.     To  horses  it  has  only  been  fed  when  I 


182  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

desired  to  winter  cheaply  and  had  no  heavy 
work.  The  mixture  used  was  two  parts  gluten, 
two  parts  bran  and  one  part  linseed  meal,  with 
plenty  of  good  hay.  Were  I  to  do  the  same 
again  I  would  add  one  part  of  what  is  called  in 
the  East  provender,  half  corn  and  half  oats, 
ground.  I  have  never  noticed  any  ill  effect 
from  the  use  of  gluten  with  dairy  cows.  Some 
believe  it  to  make  butter  soft,  or  with  less  body 
to  it.  The  cream  from  i*iy  own  dairy  herd  has 
always  gone  to  the  creamery,  but  butter  was 
made  from  that  of  the  Pennsylvania  experi- 
ment station  herd,  with  which  I  have  been 
associated,  and  there  was  never  any  difficulty 
in  making  a  fine  quality  of  butter  that  con- 
trolled a  good  market.  *  '•  *  During  last 
winter's  feeding,  with  the  high  price  of  bran, 
gluten  was  made  the  basis  of  the  mixture,  as 
three  parts  gluten  to  one  part  oil-meal  and  one 
part  cotton  seed. 

C.  A.  Sweet:  Has  fed  considerable  gluten 
meal  of  the  Buffalo  brand  to  his  herd  of  Jer- 
seys. Feeds  three  quarts  per  day  in  two  feeds, 
mixed  with  double  the  quantity  of  bran.  Has 
only  used  it  in  cold  weather  and  mixed  it  with 
water  about  twelve  hours  before  feeding.  He 
believes  it  a  wholesome  food  for  the  cattle,  and 
that  it  increases  the  milk  flow„ 

H.  H.  Hinds,  in  charge  of  Short-horn  cattle 
in  dairy  test  at  Columbian  Exposition,  says: 


THE   FEEDING   OF   LIA^E   STOCK.  183 

Owing  to  high  price  of  corn-meal  he  fed  to  Ex- 
position cows  considerable  corn  hearts  from 
hominy  mills  and  gluten  feed.  These  were 
liberally  used  with  other  grains.  The  corn 
hearts,  considering  cost,  gave  satisfactory  re- 
sults. 

Digestible  constituents  in  by-products. — 
The  following  table  is  given  by  Prof.  W.  A. 
Henry,  in  answer  to  a  correspondent,*  showing 
the  digestible  constituents  in  100  lbs.  of  each 
of  the  by-products  of  corn: 

Protein.  Carbohydrates.  Fat. 

Corn 7.1  lbs.  62.7  lbs.  4.2  lbs. 

Hominy  chops 8.9  lbs.  61.9  lbs.  6.3  lbs. 

Corn  germ 8.9  lbs.  61.4  lbs.  5.6  lbs. 

Germ  meal 9.3  lbs.  63.6  lbs.  4.1  lbs. 

Gluten  meal 25.0  lbs.  49.4  lbs.  5.6  lbs. 

Each  one  of  these  contains  more  protein  than 
the  corn,  and  the  gluten  meal  more  than  three 
times  as  much. 

*  Breeder's  Gazette,  Sept.  5, 1894. 


184  INDIAN  CORN  CULTURE. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


SOILING. 

In  the  dry  summer  season  when  pastures  be- 
come scant  it  is  important  that  green  food  be 
supplied  farm  live  stock.  The  process  of  soil- 
ing commonly  means  the  feeding  of  stock  green 
food  in  the  stable  during  the  summer,  rather 
than  pasturing  the  animals.  In  some  places, 
near  cities,  where  land  is  expensive,  soiling  is 
resorted  to  exclusively  in  season.  One  cannot 
always  afford  to  pasture  land  worth  $100  per 
acre. '  In  other  places,  where  pasture  grasses 
dry  up  and  become  short,  the  stock  is  fed  some 
specifically  grown  green  crop  additional  to  the 
pasturage.  Either  method  embraces  the  prin- 
ciples of  soiling. 

Importance  of  green  food.— The  impor- 
tance of  supplying  plenty  of  green  food  to 
stock  in  summer,  and  especially  to  cattle,  can- 
not be  emphasized  too  much.  Quincy  says* 
there  ai-e  six  advantages  to  be  derived  from 
this  process: 

*  Essays  on  the  Soiling  of  Cattle.    Boston,  1866,  p.  56. 


SOILING. 


185 


1.  From  the  saving  of  land. 

2.  The  saving  of  fencing. 

3.  The  economizing  of  food. 

4.  The  better  condition  and  greater  comfort 
of  the  cattle. 

5.  The  greater  product  of  milk. 

6.  The  attainment  of  manure. 

To  this  it  is  fair  to  add  that  if  cattle  are 
soiled  in  darkened  stables  a  seventh  benefit 
comes  from  reduced  attacks  of  flies.  In  the 
case  of  the  hornfly  this  is  an  important  consid- 
eration. 

Every  farmer  should  provide  a  summer  sup- 
ply of  succulent  food  to  his  cattle,  sheep  and 
swine.  If  this  is  not  done  when  hot,  dry  winds 
prevail  the  pastures  will  become  short  and  the 
animals  will  fall  off  in  weight  or  in  milk  yield. 
At  this  time  the  far-sighted  feeder  draws  upon 
a  provision  of  green  food,  which  maintains  the 
balance  on  the  ledger  account  in  his  favor 
through  the  critical  feeding  season. 

Crops  for  soiling.— At  the  Indiana  experi- 
ment station  the  writer  has  practiced  soiling 
for  several  years,  although  the  cattle  have  had 
the  run  of  the  pasture  during  the  entire  season. 
For  two  months  each  summer,  however,  the 
blue  grass  is  dried  off  and  eaten  to  the  ground, 
so  that  extra  green  food  has  to  be  provided. 
To  get  the  best  results  for  a  season  of  soiling 
the  following  crops  planted  in  the  order  given 


186  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

maybe  recommended:  Rye  sown  in  the  fall 
gives  the  earliest  green  fodder  in  spring.  Oats 
and  peas  planted  just  as  early  as  the  soil  can 
be  suitably  worked  give  a  good  succession  to 
the  rye.  If  two  sowings  of  oats  and  peas  fol- 
low each  other  at  intervals  of  ten  days,  or 
thereabouts,  one  will  secure  a  most  nutritious 
and  palatable  green  fodder  that  will  yield 
heavily.  Common  oats  and  Canada  field  peas 
in  the  North  make  a  good  combination.  A 
very  satisfactory  w^ay  will  be  to  sow  broadcast 
a  bushel  of  peas  to  the  acre  and  plow  the  seed 
under  three  to  four  inches;  then  harrow  thor- 
oughly and  drill  in  two  bushels  of  oats  per 
acre.  Some  persons  drill  in  oats  and  peas  at 
the  same  time,  but  the  peas  should  be  planted 
twice  as  deep  as  the  oats. 

As  soon  as  the  seed  can  be  safely  put  in  the 
ground  the  corn  crop  for  soiling  should  be 
planted.  Three  seedings  may  be  made,  so  that 
a  succession  of  green  food  will  follow  to  frost. 
The  rows  may  ordinarily  be  about  three  and 
one-half  feet  apart,  and  the  seed  six  inches,  or 
thereabouts,  apart  in  the  row.  While  the  most 
nutriment  is  secured  from  the  plant  at  ma- 
turity it  will  be  desirable  and  profitable  to  be- 
gin feeding  the  green  fodder  just  as  soon  as  it 
assumes  a  size  that  will  justify  cutting,  say  at 
the  time  the  blossom  first  appears. 

Red  clover  and  sorghuui  also  make  impor- 


SOILING. 


187 


tant  soiling  crops.  The  latter  plant  seems  to 
do  especially  well  in  localities  Avhere  consider- 
able dryness  often  prevails  in  summer,  and  it 
furnishes  a  good  succession  of  green  food. 

Of  all  the  soiling  crops,  however,  that  which 
may  he  depended  on  by  the  feeder  over  the 
longest  period  of  time,  that  will  give  the  great- 
est 'yield  at  the  least  expense,  is  Indian  corn, 
Green  rye  may  injure  the  flavor  of  milk  given 
by  cows  fed  this  crop,  but  Indiaii  corn  assists 
in  producing  the  finest  quality  of  milk  and 
butter. 

Soiling  at  Wisconsin  station.— In  an  ex- 
periment at  the  Wisconsin  station  this  amount 
of  green  food  was  supplied  between  June  15 
and  Oct.  15,  from  an  acre  and  a  half  of  land, 
according  to  Prof.  Henry:* 

Fodder  corn 23,658  lbs. 

Green  clover 19,762  lbs. 

Green  oats 2,385  lbs. 

Early  variety  of  corn  desirable.— In  plant- 
ing corn  to  secure  the  first  crop  it  will  be  desir- 
able to  get  an  early  variety.  The  early  vari- 
ties  of  sweet  corn  produce  but  small  plants 
and  comparatively  little  fodder,  while  the 
later  sweet  corn  is  no  improvement  over  the 
field  varieties,  and  as  a  rule  does  not  yield  so 
bountifully  of  forage.  Of  the  sweet  varieties 
Stowell's  Evergreen  is  among  the  best  for  this 
purpose. 

breeder's  Gazette,  Nov.  21, 1894. 


.188  INDIAN    CORN   CULTURE. 

Results  at  the  Iowa  station. — At  the  Iowa 
experiment  station,- according  to  Prof.  James 
Wilson,*  the  following  yields  of  soiling  crops 
on  an  acre  of  land  each  were  obtained: 

Total  dry  matter 
Total  green  food,      in  green  food. 

Oats  and  peas 20,800  lbs,  6,656  lbs. 

Second-crop  clover. . .    14,400  lbs.  2,880  lbs. 

Rape 54,400  lbs.  5,755  lbs. 

Sweet  corn 36,800  lbs.  12,512  lbs. 

While  the  corn  gave  a  smaller  yield  of  the 
green  food  than  the  rape  it  prodnced  more  than 
twice  as  much  dry  matter. 

The  milk  made  by  cows  fed  different  soiling 
crops  was  taken  to  the  college  creamery  and 
the  butter  made  from  it  was  scored  for  flavor 
by  experts,  rating  45  points  for  perfection. 
Blue  grass,  oats  and  peas,  and  clover  butters 
scored  42,  rape  butter  39  and  sweet  corn  butter 
45,  or  perfection.  Prof.  Wilson  says:  "The 
sweet-corn  butter  had  the  very  finest  flavor 
and  suggests  the  reason  why  Western  corn-fed 
butters  rank  so  high.  Many  Iowa  farmers  feed 
nothing  but  corn  and  its  fodders," 

Experiments  ,at  Pennsylvania  station.— At 
the  Pennsylvania  station  experiments  were  con- 
ducted for  three  years  to  ascertain  the  food 
yield  of  forage  corn.f  Two  kinds  of  corn  were 
planted,  some  plats  thick,  others  thin,  on  plats 

*Breeder''s  Gazette,  Marcb  7, 1894,  p.  151. 
t  Annual  Report  Pennsylvania  agricultural  experiment 
station,'  1892,  p.  22. 


SOILING.  189 

one-twentieth  of  an  acre  each,  and  samples 
from  each  plat  were  taken  at  intervals  and 
analj^zed.  According  to  the  results  secured 
Breck's  Boston  Market,  sown  thick,  yielded  in 
the  milk  or  just  past  this  stage  from  4,043  to 
6,494  lbs.  of  digestible  food  per  acre.  The  di- 
gestible protein  in  this  food  ranged  from  110  to 
314  lbs.  per  acre.  These  figures  show  that  a 
large  amount  of  food  may  be  secured  in  the 
plant  some  time  before  full  maturity,  when  the 
largest  amount  of  nutriment  is  usually  ob- 
tained. 

Beneficial  effect  of  green  food.— In  soiling 
stock,  however,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  an  un- 
known value  may  be  attributed  to  these  green 
foods,  which  is  shown  in  their  influence  on  the 
general  health  of  the  animals.  There  are  some 
who  disapprove  the  use  of  corn  silage  because 
a  ton  of  it,  water-free,  contains  no  more  digesti- 
ble food  than  a  ton  of  dry  fodder,  but  these  men 
as  a  rule  overlook  the  physiological  effect  of  a 
green  food  on  the  system — an  influence  that 
cannot  be  measured  by  chemical  standards. 

Stewart  on  corn  for  soiling.— In  discussing 
the  corn  crop  for  soiling  Stewart  says:* 

"Corn  is  adapted  to  the  soil  of  all  the  States,  and  pro- 
duces, under  favorable  circumstances,  enormous  yields  of 
green  fodder.  The  author  has  grown  28  tons  to  the  acre;  but 
M.  Goffart,  of  France,  grows  from  30  to  50  tons,  as  he  has 
stated  in  his  work  upon  "Ensilage."     *     *     *     There  is  no 

*  Feeding  Animals,  1886,  p.  194. 


190  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

doubt  that  it  produces  a  larger  weight  of  green  food  than  any 
other  crop  raised  in  the  United  States  except,  perhaps,  sor- 
ghum, and  this  renders  its  study  as  a  soiling  crop  of  the 
highest  importance.  *  *  *  It  is  a  most  desirable  crop,  as 
it  can  be  fed  in  combination  with  clover,  oats  and  peas,  and 
other  more  nitrogenous  food.  The  largest  crops  may  be 
grown  with  the  large  Western  or  Southern  varieties  of  field 
corn;  and  next  to  these,  Mammoth  sweet  corn  and  Stowell's 
Evergreen  sweet  corn.  The  quality  of  the  sweet  varieties  is 
better  than  'the  field  varieties.  The  greatest  amount  of  de- 
sirable nutriment  is  obtained  by  planting  in  drills  32  inches 
apart,  so  that  the  coi'n  can  be  thoroughly  cultivated.  The 
sweet  corn  will  then  grow  ears  upon  a  large  proportion  of  the 
stalks,  and  these  ears  in  the  soft  state  greatly  improve  the 
quality  of  the  food  for  both  fattening  and  milk  production. 
When  thus  grown  cattle  fatten  rapidly  upon  it  and  cows 
yield  milk  abundantly.  Corn  is  so  easily  grown  and  pro- 
duces so  largely  that  dairymen  make  it  the  principal  green 
food  to  sustain  their  herds  upon  short  pasture.  Judicious 
feeders,  when  they  have  no  other  green  food  but  fodder  corn, 
are  in  the  habit  of  feeding  wheat  bran  and  middlings  with 
the  corn- fodder,  so  as  to  make  it  a  well-balanced  food." 

Early  cutting  objectionable.— If    cut  at  a 

veiy  early  stage  green  corn  is  too  watery,  and 
unsatisfactory  results  may  ensue  unless  grain 
or  hay  is  fed  in  connection  with  it.  Corn  es- 
pecially lacks  in  protein,  but  this  may  be  sup- 
plied in  bran  or  other  grain  which  contains  a 
fairly  large  per  cent  of  this  substance.  Says 
the  late  Prof.  L.  B.  Arnold,  than  whom  there 
was  no  better  authority  on  dairying  fifteen 
years  ago:* 

"Those  who  have  condemned  it  have  fed  it  too  young,  or 
have  sown  it  so  thick  that  its  aliment  (nutriment)  was  not 

*  American  Dairying,  1879,  p.  72. 


SOILING.  191 

developed.  When  too  thickly  planted  its  stems  and  leaves 
are  soft  and  pale,  its  juices  thin  and  poor,  and  the  eflfect  is  a 
growth  somewhat  like  a  potato  vine  in  a  cellar.  If  sown 
thin,  or  in  drills,  so  that  the  air  and  light  and  heat  of  the  sun 
can  reach  it,  and  not  fed  till  nearly  its  full  size,  it  is  a  valu- 
able soiling  plant  and  is  fed  with  satisfactory  results." 

Soiling  on  pasture. — It  is  a  good  thing, 
where  entirely  feasible,  to  have  a  corn  field 
convenient  to  the  pasture  or  stable.  This  may- 
be planted  as  though  to  be  harvested  with  the 
ears  as  an  important  factor  of  the  crop.  When 
the  plants  begin  to  flower  use  from  the  field  for 
soiling  until  the  plants  pass  beyond  their  use- 
fulness for  that  purpose.  When  maturity  ar- 
rives this  field  may  also  be  drawn  upon  for  fill- 
ing the  silo.  If  the  field  is  conveniently  situ- 
ated plants  may  be  cut  from  day  to  day  and 
throwai  into  the  pasture.  This  is  a  most  satis- 
factory method. 


192  INDIAN  CORN  CULTURE. 


CHAPTER  XV. 


SILOS   AND   SILAGE. 

At  the  x^resent  clay  a  silo  is  generally  repre- 
sented by  a  pit  or  room,  in  some  cases  with 
partitions,  which  is  filled  to  the  top  with  green 
fodder.  The  silo  is  built  of  stone,  brick  or 
wood,  and  is  necessarily  of  strong  construction 
in  order  to  withstand  the  side  pressure  of  the 
contents,  which  in  deep  silos  is  very  great. 

The  practical  use  of  the  silo  in  the  United 
States  really  dates  from  1876.  Since  then 
thousands  of  them  have  been  built  in  this 
country  and  Canada. 

Constructing  a  silo.— In  building  a  silo  there 
are  important  points  which  it  will  be  well  to 
take  into  consideration.  It  should  be  made 
deep.  The  greater  the  pressure  from  above 
the  more  the  air  is  expelled  from  among  the 
silage  and  the  better  it  will  keep.  A  depth  of 
24  feet  is  shallow  enough,  and  if  deeper  it  will 
be  better  still. 

The  wall  of  the  silo  on  the  inside  should  be 
smooth.  If  of  brick  or  stone  it  should  be  cov- 
ered with  a  coat  of  smooth  cement.  If  wood 
is  used  the  inside  lining  should  have  a  smooth 


SILOS   AND   SILAGE.  193 

dressed  face.  The  purpose  of  this  is  to  enable 
the  silage  to  settle  evenly.  No  blocks  or  rods 
should  interfere  with  the  settling  process. 

There  should  be  as  few  corners  as  possible, 
for  it  is  in  corners,  at  the  door  casings  and  on 
the  surface  that  the  most  silage  spoils.  Con- 
sequently a  round  silo  offers  advantages  over  a 
square  or  rectangular  one.  Corners  may  be 
boarded  off  and  the  angles  reduced.  Door 
boards  should  fit  smooth  and  flush  with  the 
side  of  the  silo. 

Gas  tar  may  be  profitably  painted  over  all 
woodwork,  for  as  a  preservative  it  is  of  the 
highest  character.  No  wet  or  green  wood 
should  be  used,  and  only  the  dry  timber  be 
tarred.  This  material  can  be  applied  to  best 
advantage  when  hot. 

Most  desirable  forms.— The  two  most  de- 
sirable forms  of  silos  are  round  and  square. 
The  round  contains  the  least  amount  of  waste 
space,  and  owing  to  its  form  of  construction 
presents  more  strength  to  resist  side  pressure 
than  any  other  shape,  as  it  is  equally  distributed 
against  the  walls  at  every  point. 

The  square  or  rectangular  silos  may  be  often 
built  to  advantage  in  the  barn,  in  a  corner  or 
in  a  bay.  If  to  be  built  to  stand  by  itself  the 
square  form  is  preferable  to  the  rectangular. 
The  walls  are  stronger.  For  equal  capacity 
there  is  less  waste  wall  space  in  the  square. 

13 


194  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

Lining  and  floor, — The  most  satisfactory 
inside  lining  for  the  walls  of  wooden  silos  con- 
sists of  two  layers  of  boards  with  tarred  paper 
laid  between.  The  first  layer  would  be  placed 
horizontally  against  the  studs,  next  would 
come  the  paper,  and  last  the  inner  layer  of 
boards  nailed  on  vertically,  smooth  side  out. 
With  the  round  form  the  lining  all  goes  on 
horizontally.  Strips  one-half  inch  thick  and 
four  to  six  inches  wide  are  placed  on  each 
other  tightly  and  so  as  to  break  joints.  This 
construction  strengthens  the  silo,  as  a,  hoop 
does  a  pail.  There  can  be  no  springing  out  at 
one  place  in  the  side  and  not  at  another.  An 
equal  pressure  extends  from  the  center  to  the 
circumference  on  all  sides. 

It  will  be  w^ell  to  have  the  floor  of  stiff  clay 
or  of  cement.  It  is  important  to  have  it  rat- 
proof,  as  these  pests  burrow  up  into  the  silage 
where  the  floor  is  soft  and  cause  great  damage 
by  admitting  air  into  it. 

Walls. — The  walls  of  wooden  silos  remain 
sound  longest  when  they  are  well  ventilated. 
Where  they  are  tightly  boxed  up  moisture  ac- 
cumulates within  and  decay  occurs.  Auger 
holes  bored  between  studs  at  bottom  give  suffi- 
cient ventilation  if  there  are  openings  at  top  of 
wall.  All  these  holes  or  openings  should  be 
covered  with  wire  netting  to  keep  out  rats  and 
mice.    The  studs  must  be  strong  enough  to 


SILOS   AND   SILAGE.  195 

guarantee  against  springing  out  under  the 
greatest  pressure  they  are  likely  to  undergo. 

The  feeding  door  should  be  tvv^o  and  one-half 
to  three  feet  wide  and  extend  in  sections  from 
sill  to  within  three  or  four  feet  of  the  top,  each 
part  being  about  five  feet  long.  A  space  two  to 
three  feet  wide  should  be  left  or  iron  rods  should 
be  placed  in  between  the  doors  at  sufficient  in- 
tervals to  make  the  wall  perfectly  strong.  One 
or  two  extra  studs  on  each  side  of  door  casing 
secure  the  strength  of  wall  here.  Boards  as 
long  as  the  door  is  wide  are  placed  horizontally 
in  the  frame,  edge  to  edge  and  flush  with  the 
inside  of  silo,  resting  against  cleats  nailed  on 
inside  of  casing  or  fitting  into  grooves.  These 
boards  may  be  put  in  place  as  the  silo  is  filled. 

Weather  boarding  is  not  essential,  though  in 
the  North  it  assists  in  reducing  freezing.  With- 
in the  barn  only  the  inside  linings  are  at  all 
necessary. 

Fasten  cables  or  ties  of  timber  across  the  tops 
of  square  or  rectangular  silos,  attaching  to  op- 
posite studs,  to  prevent  the  walls  from  spread- 
ing.    Ties  every  seven  or  eight  feet  will  answer. 

Sills. — The  sills,  well  tarred,  should  rest  on  a 
good  foundation  that  extends  below  frost  line 
and  be  bedded  in  cement  or  mortar.  Have  the 
sills  placed  freely  above  the  outside  soil.  In 
square  or  rectangular  forms  the  sills  must  be 
anchored  to  the  wall  to  keep  them  absolutely 


196  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

in  place.    Usually  bolts  are  set  in  the  walL 
when  it  is  built,  and  these  project  enough  above 
this  to  just  extend  through  the  sills  to  permit 
capping  with  washers  and  nuts. 

Roof. — A  roof  is  required  only  on  silos  out  of 
doors.  This  may  be  built  to  suit,  but  it  should 
at  least  protect  the  silage  from  rain  and  snow. 
It  should,  if  of  permanent  character,  contain  a 
dormer  window  or  door  in  roof  through  which 
the  elevator  may  carry  the  cut  fodder  aud  de- 
posit it  within  the  silo. 

Capacity  of  silo. — The  capacity  of  the  silo 
depends  on  the  needs  of  the  farmer.    A  cubic 


foot  of  silage  under  average  conditions  will 
weigh  40  lbs. — perhaps  a  little  less.  A  day's 
feed  for  one  cow  would  not  probably  as  a  rule 
exceed  this  amount.  If  silage  is  fed  one  cow 
200  days  she  will  consume,  say  8,000  lbs.,  or 
four  tons.  On  this  basis  10  cows  will  require 
40  tons,  though  it  w^ould  be  well  to  make  the 
capacity  50  tons. 

Plans  for  round  silo. — The   accompanying 
illustrations,   reproduced  from  Bulletin  28  of 


SILOS   AND   SILAGE. 


197 


the  Wisconsin  experiment  station/by  Prof.  F. 
H.  King,  explain  in  a  measure  the  process  of 
constructing  the  round  silo.  Fig.  57  shows  a 
method  of  laying  and  leveling  the  foundation.^ 
A  is  a  center  post  with  top  level  with  top  of 
proposed  wall;   B  B  are  straight-edge  boards 


Fig.  58. 

nailed  to  stakes  driven  in  the  ground;  C  is  a 
straight-edge  fixed  to  turn  on  a  pin  at  A;  B  B 
are  all  nailed  level  with  top  of  post  A. 

Fig.  58  shows  the  construction.  The  sills  are 
2x4s,  cut  in  sections  on  a  radius  of  the  silo 
circle;  these  should  be  sawed  out  with  much 
care.    After  being  bedded  in  mortar  they  may 


198 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


be  nailed  together.  The  plates  are  the  same 
spiked  to  top  of  studs,  which  are  2x4s,  one  foot 
apart.  Short  lengths  of  studs  may  be  used, 
lapped  to  get  the  depth;  IGs  and  14s  will  give 
a  silo  30  feet  deep.  Linings  are  made  from 
fencing  ripped  in  two  to  give  one-half  inch  in 
thickness;  outside  sheeting  the  same.  Use  for 
silos  under  28  feet,  outside  diameter,  common 


siding,  rabbeted;  for  diameter  over  28  feet  out- 
side, common  drop  siding  or  shiplap  ma}^  be 
used. 

In  Fig.  59  is  seen  a  method  of  roofing  a  round 
silo  and  manner  of  connecting  it  with  a  barn. 
A  shows  where  air  is  admitted  between  stud- 
ding to  ventilate  between  the  lining;  B  is  the 
feeding  chute;  C  is  filling  window,  and  the 
cui^ola  serves  as  a  ventilator. 


SILOS   AND   SILAGE.  199 

Square  silo. — In  building  the  square  or  rec- 
tangular silo  the  sills  may  be  of  2x10  plank,  in 
two  layers,  halved  and  spiked  at  the  corners. 
The  2x10  studs  are  toe-nailed  to  the  sills,  18 
inches  apart,  center  to  center.  If  the  silo  is  to 
be  more  than  20  feet  deep  then  2x12  sills  and 
studs  would  be  better,  on  account  of  increased 
side  pressure.  The  base  of  each  stud  may  be 
cut  on  the  outside  to  block  against  a  2x4  piece 
spiked  along  the  outer  line  of  sill  to  keep  base 
of  studs  from  being  forced  outward.  The  studs 
at  the  top  are  fastened  with  a  strong  plate,  to 
wdiTch  they  are  spiked. 

Cost  of  silo.— The  cost  of  a  silo  depends  upon 
manj^  conditions,  and  no  estimates  can  be  given 
that  will  apply  to  all  localities,  there  being  such 
a  difference  in  cost  of  materials,  labor,  etc.  A 
cheaply  constructed  silo,  however,  is  an  expen- 
sive one  in  the  long  run.  It  will  pay  much 
better  to  build  carefully  and  well,  having  the 
construction  strong,  tight,  and  free  of  air-holes 
at  sides  and  bottom.  Most  of  the  condemna- 
tion of  the  silo  has  resulted  from  trials  where 
the  construction  has  been  poor  and  the  con- 
tents badly  preserved.  Prof.  King  gives  in  Bul- 
letin 28  of  the  Wisconsin  station  estimates  on 
the  cost  of  a  well-constructed  round  silo  of  ISO 
tons  capacity  as  $344.44,  or  $1.91  per  ton.  Nu- 
merous estimates  have  been  published  by  dif- 
ferent persons  where  the  cost  is  much  less  than 


200  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

this,  but  King's  figures  represent  first-class 
worlf  and  include  all  the  details  of  construc- 
tion. 

Corn  the  best  for  silage.— Indian  corn  is  rec- 
ognized as  the  plant  superior  to  all  others  for 
silage  when  cost  of  production,  jield  of  food 
material,  etc,  are  taken  into  account.  Other 
plants  are  used  to  an  insignificant  extent  for 
silage  as  compared  with  this,  and  it  is  not  the 
purpose  of  the  writer  to  consider  their  merits. 

Indian  corn  is  adapted  to  a  wide  geographical 
range  and  will  x^roduce  the  largest  amount  of 
desirable  silage  per  acre  of  an.y  crop  we  can 
grow.  Fifteen  to  20  tons  of  green  fodder  can 
be  produced  on  an  acre  without  difficulty  over 
a  large  part  of  the  United  States. 

Varieties  best  suited  for  silage. — All  of  the 
large  varieties  of  corn  are  suitable  for  silage. 
It  is  important,  however,  that  the  variety  ma- 
ture in  the  region  grown  in.  Southern  corns  as 
a  rule  will  not  mature  in  the  North  sufficiently 
to  justify  planting  them  where  the  corn-grow- 
ing season  is  short.  Perhaps  the  safest  way  is 
to  plant  the  best  known  heavy  yielding  va- 
riety grown  in  the  county  or  vicinity — one  well 
adapted  to  the  local  conditions.  If  other  varie- 
ties are  to  be  grown  they  should  possess  early- 
maturing  powers  and  also  yield  heavily  of  both 
forage  and  grain.  A  reference  to  the  varieties 
in  Chapter  III  will  assist  one  in  selecting  what 


SILOS   AND    SILAGE.  201 

may  be  a  satisfactory  variety  for  a  given  local- 
ity aDcl  conditions.  In  the  South  there  are 
nume]-ous  varieties  which  produce  the  best  of 
material  for  silage  that  would  not  mature  in 
New  Eugland,  Michigan  or  Wisconsin  suffi- 
ciently to  warrant  their  being  planted  there. 

Growing  corn  for  silage.— The  writer  rec- 
ommends that  silage  corn  be  grown  under 
ordinary  field  conditions,  and  that  such  of  the 
crop  be  used  for  the  silo  as  circumstances  make 
necessary,  using  the  remainder  for  the  later 
harvest.  This  is  a  method  which  he  has  found 
in  practice  to  be  very  satisfactory.  Puof. 
Georgeson  of  Kansas^  however,  recommends* 
planting  thicker  than  ordinary  when  the  dop 
is  grown  for  silage.  At  the  Kansas  experiment 
station  they  always  plant  the  silage  corn  in 
drills,  and  have  found  by  experience  that  they 
get  the  heaviest  yield  when  the  stalks  are  four 
to  eight  inches  apart  in  rows  one  and  one-half 
feet  apart.  At  this  distance  the  ears  are  small 
and  totally  unfit  for  market,  but  the  plants 
furnish  a  large  amount  of  nutrition  and  make 
up  in  number  what  they  lack  in  size. 

The  same  rules  for  caring  for  common  field 
corn  will  apply  to  that  intended  for  the  silo. 
The  cultivation  should  be  frequent  enough"  to 
destroy  all  weeds  and  encourage  a  rapid  growth 
of  the  plant.    Unless  a  rotation  of  crops  or 

*  Prairie  Farmer,  June  8,  1895. 


202  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

other  conditions  prcA^ent,  it  will  be  well  to  have 
the  cornfield  as  near  to  the  silo  as  possible  to 
save  time  and  labor  in  hauling.  For  informa- 
tion on  cultivating  and  field  harvesting  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  chapters  on  tillage  and 
harvesting.  In  the  latter  chapter  the  harvest- 
ing of  silage  crops  is  given  special  attention. 

Filling  the  silo.— The  fodder-cutter  should 
be  placed  convenient  to  the  silo,  so  that  the 
carrier  may  be  made  as  short  as  possible.  The 
stalks  are  eaten  up  most  completely  wdien  cut 
very  short,  and  one-half  an  inch  is  a  desirable 
length. 

After  much  experimental  work  it  seems  to  be 
demonstrated  that  rapidity  of  filling  is  on  the 
whole  unimportant.  Some  fill  as  fast  as  they 
can  haul  and  cut,  while  others  allow  an  inter- 
val of  two  or  three  days  to  occur  in  course  of 
harvesting  when  no  material  is  placed  in  the 
silo.  In  each  case  the  preservation  may  be 
eminently  satisfactory. 

The  cut  fodder  can  be  handled  to  best  advan- 
tage if  deposited  in  the  center  of  the  silo  and 
distributed  to  the  sides  from  there.  Some  rec- 
ommend a  cloth  chute  to  be  fastened  at  one  end 
of  carrier,  and  the  other  end  tied  from  time  to 
time  in  different  directions,  so  as  to  generally 
distribute  over  the  entire  surface.  While  the 
practice  is  not  universally  followed,  the  writer 
has  had  the  best  success  in  preserving  when 


SILOS   AND   SILAGE.  203 

the  corn  was  well  trampled  at  the  sides  in  fill- 
in^-.  The  more  uniform  the  packing  through- 
out the  better  will  the  silage  be  preserved. 

Covering  the  top.— When  full  the  contents 
may  he  allowed  to  settle  for  a  day  or  so,  when 
more  corn  may  be  cut  into  the  silo,  or  cut  straw 
or  chail  may  be  filled  on  the  silage  to  a  foot  or 
so  of  depth.  A  layer  of  tarred  paper  may  first 
l)e  laid  on  the  silage  and  the  straw  placed  on 
this.  Some  dispense  with  the  paper,  while 
others  begin  feeding  the  silage  from  the  top  as 
soon  as  filled,  never  covering  at  all.  No  pres- 
sure on  top  of  the  corn  is  necessary. 

Wetting  the  silage.— When  the  corn  is  cut 
in  a  very  dry  season,  and  is  not  as  juicy  as  com- 
mon, the  writer  has  found  it  advisable  to  pour 
water  on  it  after  the  temperature  reaches  a 
high  point.  If  one  has  a  water  pressure  and 
can  turn  on  through  a  hose,  that  will  be  a  con- 
venience. Plenty  of  water  may  be  used  to 
advantage,  but  no  fixed  rate  of  application  can 
be  recommended. 

Cost  per  ton.— The  cost  of  corn  silage  per 
ton  varies,  and  the  estimates  made  by  those 
owning  silos  vary  widely — from  25  cents  to  $4 
per  ton.  At  Lafayette,  Ind.,  the  writer  esti- 
mated the  cost  to  be  $1.50,  and  this  included 
higher-priced  labor  than  many  pay  for,  and  nu- 
merous other  factors,  such  as  taxes  on  land,  etc., 
that  are  not  taken  into  account  by  the  farmer. 


204  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

Feeding  it  out. — The  silage  may  be  fed  at 
any  time.  As  already  stated,  some  begin  to 
feed  as  soon  as  the  silo  is  filled.  The  feeding 
should  be  from  the  top  if  possible,  so  as  to  al- 
low no  part  an  opportunity  to  decay.  Where 
long,  shallow  silos,  however,  are  used,  the  bet- 
ter way  is  to  keep  the  top  covered,  excepting 
toward  one  end,  and  then  to  feed  from  the  end, 
working  off  a  vertical  section  to  the  floor  from 
time  to  time. 

Corn  silage  has  been  found,  as  a  result  of 
large  practice,  to  be  a  valuable  food  for  cattle 
and  sheep.  Swine  do  not  eat  it  to  any  appre- 
ciable extent,  excepting  for  the  grain  it  may 
contain.  There  is  considerable  diversity  of 
opinion  as  to  its  value  for  horses.  Mr.  M.  W. 
Dunham  of  Wayne,  111.,  one  of  the  greatest 
breeders  and  importers  of  horses  in  the  United 
States,  if  not  in  the  world,  writes  the  author 
that  after  carefully  testing  it  on  a  large  scale 
as  a  food  for  horses,  during  two  years,  he  finally 
discarded  it  as  unfit  for  them.  Others,  how- 
ever, feed  horses  silage  Avith  satisfactory  re- 
sults. It  is  important  to  remember  that  horses 
have  comparatively  small  stomachs  and  should 
be  fed  lightly  of  this  food,  otherwise  colic  or 
bowel  trouble  is  liable  to  occur.  For  a  further 
consideration  of  silage  as  a  food  the  reader  is 
referred  to  Chapters  XII  and  XTII, 


STATISTICS. 


205 


CHAPTER  XVI 


STATISTICS. 

Indian  corn  is  the  'most  important  cereal 
crop  grown  in  America,  as  based  on  crop  pro- 
duction and  values.  The  crop  for  1893  had  a 
much  greater  money  value  than  the  combined 
ones  of  wheat,  oats,  lye,  barley,  and  buckwheat 
for  the  same  year.  The  magnitude  and  com- 
mercial value  of  the  corn  crop  of  the  United 
States  can  only  be  comprehended  by  a  study  of 
statistics  bearing  on  this  sul)ject. 

The  corn  crop  of  ISSS  amounted  to  nearly 
2,000,000,000  bushels.  Commenting  on  this 
fact,  one  of  the  agricultural  journals=^  presented 
its  readers  with  the  following  graphic  state- 
ment. If  the  corn  crop  were  put  into  40-bushel 
wagon  loads,  and  3)  feet  be  allowed  for  the 
wagon,  team  and  bead  way  in  the  road,  the 
string  of  teams  would  stretch  284,090  miles,  or 
11  rows  around  the  world,  and  9,000  miles  more 
of  teams  not  in  line.  If  in  car-loads  of  500 
bushels  per  car,  allowing  40  feet  for  length  and 

*  Orange  JucU  Fanmr,  Sept.  29,  1888 


206 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


couplings,  the  corn  crop  of  1S8S  would  require 
4,000,000  cars,  and  they  would  make  up  a  con- 
tinuous freight  train  30,303  miles  long;  or  10 
trains  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific;  or  one 
freight  train  of  corn  clear  round  the  world 
with  enough  cars  left  over  to  form  two  con- 
tinuous trains  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 


STATES  AND  TERRITORIES. 


Maine    

New  Hampshire. 

Vermont 

Massachusetts.. . 

Rhode  Island 

Connecticut 

New  York 

New  Jersey.  .     . 
Pennsylvania..   . 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

North  Carolina. . 
South  Carolina.. 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Tennessee 

West  Virginia  ... 

Kentucky 

Ohio 

Michitran 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Missouri 

Kansas 

Nebraska 

South  Dakota.... 
North  Dakota.... 

Montana 

Wyoming 

Colorado 

New  Mexico  ...  . 

Arizona 

Utah 

Nevada 

Idaho 

Washinuton 

Oregon 

California 


Total . 


Acres. 

1.3.553 

25,074 

44.094 

40,4G0 

8,949 

43,557 

517,135 

277,183 

1,273,418 

199,874 

623,667 

J.G52,595 

.435,310 

,623,511 

,034,079 

506,120 

,463,349 

,970,777 

,071,5ba 

,475,623 

,982.149 

,988,247 

649,265 

,893,960 

,709,549 

919,432 

,456.220 

,247,100 

971.686 

887,052 

,428,677 

,670,169 

,547,263 

,241,220 

865,472 

20.142 

1,102 

2,071 

123,107 

25.155 

4.604 

8,575 

8!405 
l.J.lo2 


Bushels. 

410,656 

794,846 

1,428,646 

1,355,410 

218,356 

1,228,307 

15,255,483 

7,179,010 

31,198,741 

4,916,900 

15.078,221 

31.234,046 

29,954,313 

12,501,035 

33,678,277 

4.909,.SG4 

23.328,514 

25.817,179 

15,216,266 

61.170,965 

32,110,814 

63,649,661 

14,089,051 

68.003,060 

64.487,265 

21,790.538 

85,368  782 

160,550,470 

28  956,243 

25,103,572 

251,832,150 

158,197.715 

139,456,702 

157,278,895 

20,511,680 

416,939 

30,305 

2,031  !266 
636,422 
81,951 
184,363 

""'si.uh 

179.027 

324,360 

2,275,268 


Value. 

$254,607 

453,062 

871,474 

840,354 

160,666 

786,116 

8,390,510 

3,733.101 

15,287,333 

1,966,760 

6,634,417 

14,.367,661 

14.977,1.')7 

7,500,021 

18,859,835 

3. .338  368 

16,713,623 

1-1. 1 99.448 

8,673,272 

33,032.321 

14,140.866 

24,823.3>i8 

7,748,978 

29,243.466 

25,794, 90f) 

9,805,742 

SO.732,762 

49,770,640 

10,134,685 

8.535,214 

67,994.681 

47,459,315 

43,231,578 

42,465,.302 

5,127,922 

158,437 

21,214 

24,138 

1,035,916 

451,860 

100i931 

"2V,5i6 

110.997 

152,449 

1.137.e34 


STATISTICS. 


207 


Area  planted  to  corn.— The  preceding  table* 
gives  the  number  of  acres  of  corn  planted  in 
the  United  States  in  1893,  number  of  bushels 
of  grain  grown,  and  its  value.  The  corn  crop 
for  1894  was  the  smallest,  with  one  exception, 
harvested  in  the  past  fifteen  years,  being  almost 
390,000,000  bushels  less  than  the  average  for 
1890-1894,  and  over  490,000,000  bushels  less  than 
the  average  crop  of  the  ten  j^ears  1880-1889. 
For  this  reason  the  1893  yield  of  the  several 
States  is  given,  instead  of  the  1894: 

The  average  rate  of  yield,  22.5  bushels  per 
acre,  is  the  lowest  for  ten  years,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  years  1886,  1887  and  1890.  It  is 
only  a  little  lower,  however,  than  that  of  1883, 
which  was  22.7,  or  two-tenths  of  a  bushel 
greater.  The  average  value  per  bushel  is  36.5 
cents,  which  is  2.9  cents,  or  about  7  per  cent 
lower  than  the  value  of  1892.  This  value  is 
6.1  cents  less  than  the  average  of  the  ten  years 
1870-1879,  2.8  cents  less  than  that  of  the  de- 
cade 1880-1889,  and  6.6  cents  below  the  average 
value  of  the  three  years  1890-1892.  In  the  ten 
years  preceding  only  four  crops,  viz.,  those  of 
1884  (35.7),  1885  (32.8),  1888  (34.1),  and  1889 
(28.3),  have  had  a  lower  average  value. 

Magnitude  of  corn  crop.— The  significance 
of  the  corn  crop  of  the  United  States,  as  cover- 

*From  December,  1893,  report  of  of  the  Statistician  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


208 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


ing  a  term  of  3^ears,  can  be  best  shown  in  the 
following  table:"'' 


Total  prodiic- 
tion,  bushels. 

Total  area, 

acres. 

Total  value, 
dollars. 

Average  tor  lo  years,  isto-is79.  . 
1880  .: .          

l,184,48C,<t!i4 
1.717,434.543 
1,194,910,000 
1.617,025,100 
1,651,066,895 
1,795,528.000 
1,936,170,000 
1,005.441,000 
1,4511,161.000 
1.987,790,000 
2,112,892.000 

1,703.443,054 

l,469,970,r0U 
2.000,154,000 
1,623.464,000 
1,019,496,1.31 
1,212,770.052 

43.741,331 
02,317,842 
64,262,025 
65,659,545 
68,301,889 
09,683,780 
73.130.150 
75,694,208 
72.392,720 
75,072.763 
78,319,651 
70  543,457 
71.970,763 
76.204,515 
70,626,658 
72,036,465 
62,532,269 

60t,o71.048 
679,714,499 
759  482,170 
783,867,175 
6r,S,0il,485 
640,735.560 
335,674.630 
610,311,000 
016,100,770 
677.561.580 
597,913,829 
668.942,370 
754,431,451 
836,439,228 
642,146,630 
691,625,627 
554.719,162 

1881 

1882 

1883                                 

1885 

1880 

1887 

ill::::.::::::-::::.::::::::::: 

1890.....             

i89i::::: :::::::::::::::: 

1892 

1893 

Total 

Averaf/e,  1S90-1S94 

8,010,851,183 
1,602,170,837 

353.420,070 
70.684,134 

3,379,364.098 
675,872,620 

Statistics  of  yield  and  price. — The  table  on 
next  page,  i^repared  from  the  reports  of  the 
Statistician  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  and  the  United  States  census, 
has  a  special  interest  as  bearing  on  the  two  pre- 
ceding tables. 

The  exports  of  Indian  corn  from  the  United 
States  have  been  and  are  comparatively  small. 
From  1870  to  1893  there  has  been  exported  each 
year  3.8  per  cent  of  the  entire  crop  grown,  as  an 
average  for  that  period  of  years.  The  greatest 
percentage  amount  exported  in  one  year — 6.5 
per  cent — was  in  1877,  while  the  smallest 
amount,  1  per  cent,  w^as  exported  in  1870,  al- 
though the  amount  was  only  1.7  per  cent  in 

*  Report  of  Statistician  of  the  United  States  Deijartmeut 
of  Agriculture,  Report  3,  December,  1894,  p.  720. 


STATISTICS. 


1887.  Notwithstanding  tiie  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  under  Secretary 
Rusk's  administration  made  an  effort  to  dis- 
seminate information  abroad  concerning  the 
value  of  Indian  corn  as  a  food,  by  sending  a 
special  agent,  Mr.  Charles  J.  Murphy,  to  Eu- 
rope, there  has  been  no  striking  increase  in  the 


1870.. 
18T1.. 
JST2.. 


1884.. 
1885.. 
1836.. 
1887.. 


Corn  crop. 

Sushels 
per  head 

Average 

Musheis. 

popula- 
tion. 

bushtl. 

377.531,875 

22 

592,071,104 

838,792.742 

27 

37,750.000 

874,320,000 

23 

75,3 

38,558,:-i71 

1,094,255,000 

28 

64.9 

39,555.000 

991.898,000 

25 

48.2 

40,59«,0C0 

1,092,719.000 

27 

39  8 

41,677,000 

932,274,000 

22 

48  0 

42,796  000 

850,148,500 

20 

64  7 

43.951,000 

1,331,069,000 

30 

42.0 

45.137.000 

1,283,827,500 

28 

37.0 

46  353,000 

1,3^.558,000 
1,388,218,750 

29 

35.8 

47.59S,000 

29 

31.8 

48,806,000 

1,547.901,790 

32 

37.5 

50.155,783 

1,717,434,543 

34 

39.6 

51,310,000 

1,194,916,000 

23 

63.6 

52.495,000 

1,617,025,100 

31 

48.4 

53.0,?3,000 

1.551,006,895 

29 

42.4 

54  911,000 

1,795,528,000 

33 

35.7 

56,148,000 

1,930,170,(100 

34 

32.8 

57.404.000 

1,605,441,000 

29 

36.6 

58,080,000 

1,450,161,000 

25 

44.4 

59.974,000 

1,987,790,000 

33 

34.1 

61,289.000 

2,112,892,000 

34 

28.3 

62.622.250 

1.489.970,000 

24 

50.6 

64,002,000 

2,000,154.000 

32 

40.6 

.  65,403.000 

1,628,404.000 

25      , 

39.4 

66,820,000 

1,619,490,131 

24     * 

36.5 

68,275,000 

1,212,770,052 

18 

45.7 

Average 

yield 
per  acre. 


23.5 
2911 


29.2 
27  6 
18.6 
24.6 
22.7 
25.8 
26.5 
22  0 
20.1 
26.3 
27.0 
20.7 
27.0 
23.1 
22.6 
19.4 


export  trade.  A  verification  of  this  statement 
may  be  found  in  the  following  table.  In  spite 
of  this  fact,  it  is  confidently  believed  that  the 
persistent  and  judicious  work  of  Mr.  Murphy 
will  result  eventually  in  a  decided  increase  in 
our  export  trade.  AVith  a  firm  belief  in  the 
value  of  Indian  corn  as  a  food,  he  has  sacrificed 
u 


210 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


much  of  personal  fortune  and  time  to  properly 
present  the  merits  of  this  grain  to  the  several 
European  governments.  Mr.  Murphy  will  never 
reap  the  rev^^arcl  he  deserves  for  the  service  he 
has  bestowed  upon  American  corn  growers: 

TOTAL  CROP  AND  EXPORT  OF  INDIAN  CORN. 


These  figures  show  that  tlie  largest  ship- 
ments abroad  were  made  in  1879  and  1889,  and 
that  after  1879,  up  to  1892,  excepting  1889,  the 
shipment  fell  below  the  average  amount  ex- 
ported yearly  for  23  years. 

The  average  yield  iu  bushels  per  acre  for 
the  country,  for  the  years  1890-94,  has  varied 
from  9.6  for  Colorado  in  1893  to  51.7  for  Con- 
necticut the  same  year.  New  Hampshire  shows 
the  highest  general  average  yield,  being  44.6, 


STATISTICS. 


211 


45.7,  43.2  and  47.3  bushels  respectively  for  the 
years  1890  to  1893.  The  averages  of  all  the 
States  for  the  same  periods  were  23.1,  28.7,  26.8 
and  25.9  bushels.  The  relatively  high  yield  of 
the  New  England  States  is  due  to  the  intensive 
methods  of  farming  practiced  over  a  small  area, 
in  which  either  stable  manure  or  artificial  fer- 
tilizers are  largely  used. 

Corn  crop  of  the  world.— Before  leaving  this 
subject  it  will  be  well  to  note  the  extent  of  the  In- 
dian corn  crop  of  the  world.    Al)out  80  per  cent 


COtTNTKY. 


United  States 

Canada  

AuBirla-l  lungary 

France 

Italy  

Portugal 

Roumanta 

Russia 

Japan 

Cochin  China....;. .. 

Natal 

Argentine  Republic. 
New  South  Wales... 

New  Zealand 

Queensland     

Victoria 


1S91 
1891 
IS'JO 
1890 
1890 
1891 
1891 
ISPO 


1891 
1890 
1891 


Acres. 


7,  ,204,516 
241,086 
5,B91,88G 
1,350,(;41 
4,724,110 
1,284,920 
4,184,372 

"'65,3(i5 
13,245 

206, BGS 


173,836 
5,(59 
99,400 
10,357 


2,060 

9 

109 

23 

74 


,154,000 
,432,559 
,126,632 
,815.177 
,901,075 
,225.700 
,977,319 
,233  177 
,245,016 
304,180 
,5«6,628 
,200,612* 
,523.611 
246,393 
,448,625 
592,178 


of  that  grown  is  produced  in  the  United  States, 
while  the  large  share  of  the  balance  is  grown  in 
a  few  countries  along  the  lower  Danube  river 
in  Europe,  in  Spain,  Argentine  Republic  and 
Mexico.  An  entirely  satisfactory  statement  of 
tlie  world's  crop  cannot  be  secured,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  statistics  are  not  available  of  the 
crop  grown  in  Mexico  and  many  other  coun- 
tries.   The  above  table  is  as  recent  a  statement 


*  Commercial  estimates. 


212  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

as  the  writer  could  secure  of  the  yields  of  corn 
of  different  countries,  and  is  compiled  from 
many  government  reports.* 

When  the  Indian  corn  harvest  of  the  United 
States  is  better  than  an  average  one  the  total 
world's  crop  of  this  cereal  exceeds  in  size  that  of 
the  total  yield  of  any  other  cereal. 

*Production  and  distribution  of  the  yjrincipal  agricultural 
products  of  the  world.  Compiled  from  official  statistics. 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Report  No.  5, 
p.  15. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


213 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

A  immber  of  subjects  of  interest  and  impor- 
tance are  placed  in  this  chapter.  They  seemed 
inappropi-iate  to  the  suljject  matter  of  the  pre- 
ceding chapters,  yet  of  sufficient  importance  to 
be  classed  by  themselves  under  this  general 
heading. 

Detasseling.— Since  18S8  this  subject  has  re- 
ceived considerable  attention  at  some  of  the 
experiment  stations.  According  to  McLaren* 
in  1739  James  Logan  of  Philadelphia  published 
an  account  of  some  experiments  made  by  him 
where  he  removed  the  tassels  of  the  corn  plant 
and  transposed  the  pollen.  In  1879  Beal  called 
attention  to  the  fact  that  a  corn  plant  does  not 
naturally  fertilize  itself,  the  pollen  being  dis- 
charged from  the  tassels  before  the  appearance 
of  the  silk.f 

Among  the  early  experiments  made  at  the 
stations  some  evidence  seemed  to  indicate  that 


♦Agricultural  Science,  Vol.  7,  p.  319. 

t  Michigan  Board  of  Agriculture  Reports,  1879,  p.  198; 
1880,  p.  283. 


214  INDIAN    CORN    CTTLTURE. 

a  larger  crop  was  secured  by  detasseling.  Later 
investigations,  however,  in  most  cases  gave 
evidence  of  reduced  crop  jdeld  due  to  this 
practice.  In  1888  Shelton  of  Kansas  found  a 
loss  of  nearly  10  per  cent  due  to  detasseling.* 
Roberts  in  1890,  at  Cornell  University^  how- 
ever, secured  a  gain  of  50  per  cent  due  to  de- 
tasseling,  and  this  experiment  attracted  w^ide 
attention  to  the  subject/}-  Further  work  at 
Cornell  seemed  to  corroborate  this  result  in  a 
measure.  In  1892  there  was  a  gain  in  weight 
of  good  ears  amounting  to  15  per  cent,  and  of 
poor  ears  of  26  per  cent  on  the  detasseled  rows, 
besides  being  a  gain  in  number  of  ears.:}: 

At  the  Illinois  station,  however,  several  years 
of  experimentation  have  shown  no  advantage 
to  be  derived  from  this  process,  but  if  anything 
a  loss.  At  the  Nebraska  station,  a  decided  loss 
is  shown  from  detasseling.§  Ten  detasseled 
rows  20  rods  long  each  gave  a  yield  of  528  lbs. 
of  corn;  10  alternate  rows,  not  detasseled,  1,220 
lbs.,  and  20  undisturbed  rows  elsewhere  la  the 
field,  2,369  lbs.  The  cost  of  detasseling  was 
estimated  at  $1.25  per  acre.  At  the  Kansas 
station  in  1891  the  results  were  adverse  to  detas- 


*  Kansas  experiment  station.    Report  of  1888,  p.  27. 

t Cornell  University  experiment  station.  Bulletin  25, 
1890. 

Xlbid.,  Bulletin  49,  December,  1892,  p.  317. 

§  Nebraska  exijeriment  station.  Bulletin  No.  25,  Dec.  1, 
1892,  p.  4. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  215 

seliiig,  while  in  1892  they  were  favorable.*  As 
based  on  this  experience  the  Kansas  investi- 
gators state  that  in  seasons  favora1:)le  to  the 
production  of  much  pollen,  when  the  pollena- 
tion  can  take  place  under  normal  conditions 
(as  to  rainfall  and  temperature)  it  is  advanta- 
geous to  remove  a  portion  of  the  tassels,  but 
*  •»  ^=  where  the  contrary  conditions  prevail 
the  practice  results  iu  diminishing  the  crop." 

No  doubt  the  practice  will  have  but  few  fol- 
lowers. In  numerous  experiments  the  opera- 
tion has  been  thought  to  be  a  direct  injury  to 
the  plant.  Further,  the  operation  of  detassel- 
ing  involves  extra  cost  of  crop,  while  the  re- 
turns where  an  increase  has  occurred  in  most 
cases  were  not  remarkable. 

In  case  the  corn-grower  wishes  to  experi- 
ment in  this  work  the  following  suggestion  by 
Watson  of  the  Cornell  University  station  may 
be  of  service :-}-  "  From  these  three  experiments 
made  at  this  station  in  detasseling  corn  it  has 
been  observed  that  it  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance to  have  the  tassel  removed  at  the  earliest 
time  possible,  certainly  before  they  have  be- 
come expanded,  and  still  better  if  enclosed 
within  the  folds  of  the  leaf."    The  operation  of 


*  Kansas  experiment  station.  Bulletin  45,  December,  1893, 
pp.  132-138. 

t  Cornell  University  agricultural  experiment  station,  Bul- 
letin No.  49,  December.  1892. 


216  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

removing  the  tassels  was  by  giving  them  an 
upward  pull  by  hand,  which  caused  the  stalk 
to  break  off  above  the  upper  joint  without  in- 
juring the  leaves  at  all. 

Cost  of  growing  a  crop.— Much  has  been 
published  in  the  agricultural  press  on  the  cost 
of  growing  a  crop  or  acre  of  Indian  corn.  Of 
course,  as  might  be  expected,  there  is  a  great 
diversity  of  opinion  on  this  subject.  Many 
statemeiits  have  been  printed  and  often  these 
have  been  quite  imperfect  in  detail.  No  inter- 
est may  be  allowed  on  money  invested  in  land, 
tools,  buildings;  no  account  is  taken  of  taxes 
and  loss  of  soil  fertility  in  many  instances,  yet 
all  these  facts  bear  on  the  cost  of  producing 
the  crop.    Says  Sanborn:" 

"We  wish  to  repeat  again,  Avhat  we  in  effect  have  already 
said,  that  we  Jiave  not  seen  by  any  writer  a  fair  stateiilffnt  of 
the  cost  of  a  crop.  Such  cost  must  include  sometliing  of  the 
manager's  time,  something  for  the  use  of  machinei'y  and  its 
breakages,  something  of  the  time  lost  in  purchase  and  sales, 
and  loss  of  time  in  dull  weather  and  winters.  A  ti-ue  calcula- 
tion will  add,  probably,  at  least  25  per  cent  to  the  apparent 
cost," 

The  following  figures  bearing  on  the  cost 
question  are  from  some  of  the  most  complete 
statements  secured  by  the  writer.  These  are 
given  simply  as  evidence  along  a  line  in  which 
the  corn-grower  takes  much  interest.  None  of 
the  figures  are  really  conclusive,  but  are  more 
or  less  interesting  and  swggestive. 

*j!^rirror  and  Farmer,  Dec.  6,  1894. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  217 

In  1886  the  Secretary  of  State  of  Michigan 
published  a  crop  report  giving  information  on 
the  cost  of  producing  wheat,  oats  and  corn 
crops  in  that  State."'  The  estimates  are  based 
on  817  reports  from  correspondents  represent- 
ing 650  townships.  The  cost  of  producing  and 
marketing  one  acre  of  corn  in  the  State  was 
$19.14,  or  21.4  cents  per  bushel  of  ears.  This  is 
based  on  the  average  price  for  corn  on  Jan.  1, 
1886,  viz.:  24  cents  per  bushel  of  ears.  The 
cost  for  the  year  1885  was  estimated  at  20.9 
cents  per  bushel  of  ears. 

In  1889  the  Secretary  of  tlie  Kansas  Board  of 
Agriculture  investigated  this  subject  in  that 
State  and  estimated  from  the  returns  that  it 
cost  the  farmers  of  Kansas,  wdiere  an  average 
yield  o»f  30  bu.  per  acre  was  grown,  21  cents  a 
bushel  to  produce  and  deliver. 

For  a  number  of  years  the  Farmers^  Beview 
published  numerous  articles  from  corn-growers 
on  the  cost  of  crop  production.  In  the  Beview 
of  April  7,  1886,  A.  S.  Morley,  Arlington,  Neb., 
gives  the  following  figures  from  his  ledger: 

TWENTY- FIVE  ACRES  CORN. 

Fall  plowing,  9  acres  at  $L25 $11.25 

Interest  and  taxes,  at  $3 75.00 

Cutting  nine  acres  stalks 2.25 

Plowing  16  acres,  at  $1.25 20.00 

Cultivating  9  acres — fall  plowing 3.00 

Harrowing  and  marking .-. . .  4.00 

*  Michigan  Crop  Report,  Jan.  1,  1886.     No.  51,  page  8. 


218  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

Planting  at  25c.  per  acre. $6.25 

Seed 1.50 

Double  harrowing .   6.00 

Cultivating  12i  days 37.00 

Total  cost -$166.25 

Cost  per  acre 0.05 

Yield  per  acre,  50  bushels.  Cost  per  bushel  in  field,  13.3 
cents.  Adding  4  cents  per  bushel  for  husking  and  market- 
ing, the  cost  will  be  17.3  cents. 

S.  B.  of  Clinton  Co.,  Incl.,  in  the  Indiana 
Farmer  (March  19,  1892),  gives  the  following 
figures,  based  on  the  cost  of  raising  12  acres  of 
corn : 

Plowing  8  days  at  $2.50 $20.00 

Preparing  ground  3  days 7.50 

Planting 4.00 

Seed 1.00 

Cultivating  10  days  at  $2.50 25.00 

Husking  600  bushels  at  2^c 15.00 

Rent  of  land  at  $4  per  acre 48.00 

Total  cost  unmai'keted $120.50 

Cost  per  acre 10.04 

At  50  bushels  per  acre,  cost  per  bushel  20  cents. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Oxford  (Ohio)  Farmers' 
Clul)  President  L.  N.  Bonham  gave  the  follow- 
ing itemized  statement  of  the  cost  of  growing 
a  24-acre  field  of  corn  110  rods  long.* 

Breaking  stalks $l-'>0 

Raking  and  burning 1.50 

Plowing  ten  days 25.00 

Harrowing  2}  days •  •  •  5-62 

*  Farmers^  Review,  June  24,  1885. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


219 


Planting  1 A  days $3.75 

Seed  (3  bushels) 2.00 

Replanting 3.25 

Rolling  2  days 5.00 

Cultivating  3  times,  long  way,  3  days 15.00 

Cultivating  2  times,  short  way,  4J  days 22.50 

Thinning '  3.50 

Total  cost  of  cultivating $68,62 

Husking  8  days,  4  men,  2  teams 56.00 

Tax  on  land 24.25 

Interest  on  land  or  rent 120.00 

Total  cost  unmarketed $268.87 

Cost  per  acre  in  crib 11.87 

Cost  to  cultivate  and  gather  per  acre 5.20 

There  were  60  bushels  per  acre,  or  a  total  of  1,440 

bushels,  worth  at  husking  time $360  00 

Worth  per  acre 15.00 

Cost  per  bushel,  18.6  cents. 

No  allowance  is  here  made  for  the  fodder, 
which  is  worth  as  much  as  average  hay  if 
properly  cured. 

The  Practical  Farmer  a  few  years  ago  pub- 
lished a  number  of  articles  on  the  cost  of  grow- 
ing corn.  Among  the  contributors  to  this  sub- 
ject was  Mr.  T.  B.  Terry,  who  gave  the  figures 
of  the  cost  of  the  crop  of  Mr.  E.  A.  Peters  of 
Central  Ohio.     They  are  as  follows: 

Plowing  30  acres,  20  days  at  $3 $70.00 

Harrowing  and  working  land  15  days 45.00 

Planting,  3  days  at  $4 12.00 

Seed,  5  bushels  at  60c 3.00 

Cultivating,  20  days  at  $3 60.00 

Cutting  750  shocks  at  7c.  each 52.50 

Husking  2,400  bushels  at  4c 96.00 


220  INDIAN    CORN    CULTURE. 

Hauling  to  cribs,  18  days  at  $i $54.00 

■Rent  of  land 200.00 

Total $592.50 

By  750  shocks  at  lOc.  each 75.00 

$517.50 
Cost  per  bushel  a  trifle  over  21.5  cents. 

In  the  Eastern  States  the  cost  of  production 
is  somewhat  higher.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  in  these  figures  the  question  of  impover- 
ishment of  soil  is  not  considered,  although  it  is 
far  from  an  insignificant  one. 

Large  yields  of  Indian  corn.— In  1SS9  the 
American  Agriculturist  offered  a  number  of 
valuable  prizes,  which  were  supplemented  b.y 
other  parties,  for  the  production  of  large  yields 
per  acre  of  farm  crop's  of  certain  kinds.  In  the 
corn  class  the  first  prize  offered  was  $500  cash 
in  gold.  A  number  of  other  prizes  were  offered. 
The  crop  was  in  each  instance  grown  on  not 
less  than  one  acre  of  land  and  a  complete  record 
kept  of  the  woi'k  of  preparing  land,  fertilizing, 
labor,  etc.  The  harvesting  was  done  in  the 
presence  of  three  disinterested  witnesses,  who 
measured  the  product,  and  Avhose  signatures 
attested  the  honesty  and  correctness  of  the  con- 
testant's report,  which  was  made  out  on  a  form 
properly  prepared  and  sworn  to.  Forty-five 
people  filed  competitive  imports,  and  the  aver- 
age yield  of  crib-cured  shelled  corn  for  the  45 
was  89  bushels  per  acre.     The  largest  yield  was 


MISCELLANEOUS.  221 

secured  1)}^  Z.  J.  Drake  of  Marlboro  Co.,  South 
Caroliua,  who  grew  239  bushels  of  crib-cured 
shelled  corn  on  one  acre  of  land,  or  217  bushels, 
free  of  all  water.  This  the  writer  believes  to 
be  the  largest  yield  of  corn  from  one  acre  of 
land  on  record. 

The  land  on  which  this  crop  was  grown  was 
sandy  in  character,  the  original  growth  on  it 
being  oak,  hickory  and  long-leaf  pine.  It  has 
a  gentle  slope,  with  northern  exposure,  and  was 
well  drained  naturally.  The  soil  "was  a  fair 
specimen  of  much  of  the  poor  land  in  the 
South."  In  1885,  planted  to  corn,  almost  no 
crop  was  secured,  and  in  1887  not  over  five 
bushels  per  acre  was  obtained. 

The  following  table  gives  some  facts  as  to 
how  this  acre  was  fertilized  for  the  crop  of 
corn: 

1,000  bushels  stable  manure $50.00 

867  lbs.  kainit 7.80 

867  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal 10.80 

200  lbs.  acid  phosphate 2.00 

1,066  lbs.  manipulated  guano : .     13.32 

200  lbs.  animal  bone ". 4.00 

400  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda 12.00 

600  bushels  cotton  seed 120.00 

Cost  of  application 7.00 

Total  cost .$226.92 

There  w^ere  other  items  of  expense,  such  as 
labor,  interest  on  land,  etc.,  amounting  to 
$37.50,  bringing  the  total  cost  of  crop  to 
$264.42. 


222  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

Corn  ab  that  time  in  vSouth  Carolina  was 
valued  at  75  cents  a  bushel,  which  makes  the 
grain  worth  $191.16,  and  adding  the  fodder 
value,  $15,  makes  a  total  of  $206.16  value  in 
receipts.  In  February  stable  manure  was 
hauled  on  the  land,  followed  by  applications  of 
guano,  cotton-seed  meal  and  kainit.  The  land 
was  then  plowed,  and  following  the  plow 
cotton-seed  meal  was  strew^n  in  the  furrows. 
A  subsoil  plow  came  after,  breaking  the  soil  to 
a  depth  of  12  inches.  A  Thomas  smoothing 
harrow  followed  after  the  plowing.  One  bushel 
of  Southern  white  dent  corn  of  the  gourd-seed 
variety  was  planted  on  March  2.  The  rows 
were  furrowed  out,  alternately  three  and  six 
feet  apart,  and  five  or  six  kernels  were  dropped 
to  each  foot  of  the  row.  Betw^een  the  wide 
rows,  later  on  in  May,  guano  was  applied,  and 
then  later,  in  June,  a  mixture  of  500  lbs.  of 
guano,  cotton-seed  meal  and  kainit  w^as  spread 
in  the  wdde  spaces.  Still  later,  in  June,  100 
lbs.  of  nitrate  of  soda  was  scattered  between 
the  narrow  rows  and  hoed  in.  Frequent  culti- 
vation was  employed,  but  the  land  was  kept 
flat,  not  ridged. 

The  plants  grew  so  large  it  became  necessary 
to  erect  posts  and  nail  slats  to  them  on  both 
sides  of  each  row  to  prevent  the  corn  from 
falling.  The  harvesting  was  done  in  the  pres- 
ence of  a  large  number  of  spectators.    J.  C. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


223 


Campbell,  representative  of  the  Ameyican  Agri- 
culturist, G.  B.  W.  Dunn,  J.  W.  Reynolds  and 
John  J.  Tart  were  the  witnesses  to  the  harvest- 
ing. 

Besides  winning  the  $500  in  gold  offered  by 
the  American  Agriculturist  Mr.  Drake  also  won 
an  additional  prize  of  $500  offered  by  the  Soutli 
Carolina  Board  of  Agriculture  to  the  person 
who  would  bring  the  first  prize  to  that  State. 

In  competition  for  the  same  prize,  Mr.  Alfred 
Rose,  of  Penn  Yan,  N.  Y.,  won  the  second 
prize,  growing  191  bushels  of  shelled  crib-cured 
corn  on  one  acre  of  ground.  The  total  cost  of 
producing  Mr.  Rose's  crop  was  $55. 

The  third  prize  went  to  George  Gartner  of 
Pawnee  Co.,  Neb.,  who  grew  151  bushels  of 
shelled  crib-cured  corn  on  one  acre.  The  total 
cost  of  producing  his  crop  was  $49.70. 

Cross  fertilization.— The  subject  of  crossing 
varieties  of  Indian  corn  has  been  studied  at  a 
number  of  the  experiment  stations,  especially 
Illinois,  Kansas,  Minnesota,  New  York  and 
Ohio.  Of  these  Illinois  has  published  the  larg- 
est amount  of  information  concerning  this 
work.'' 

It  is  commonly  known  that  if  two  different 
varieties  of  corn  are  gi'own  near  each  other 
they  will  "  mix  "  or  cross  fertilize.     In  this  way, 

*  See  bulletins  Illinois  experiment  station,  especially  21 
and  25. 


224  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

unintentionally,  the  purity  of  seed  is  injured 
and  perhaps  new  varieties  are  accidentally 
begun. 

In  crossing  it  is  essential  that  the  female 
parts  of  the  plant  be  kept  covered,  so  that  the 
only  pollen  to  come  in  contact  with  the  pistil 
shall  be  of  the  variety  it  is  desired  to  cross 
with.  The  following  is  given  by  McCliier  as 
the  method  most  satisfactory  at  the  Illinois 
station  :"■' 

"Wc  have  found  the  best  method  to  be  to  cover  up,  before 
the  silks  arc  out,  botli  the  tassel  and  the  coming  ear,  with  a 
closely-woven  cloth  bag.  Covering  the  tassel  of  the  stalk 
desired  for  a  male  jiarent  insures  a  full  supply  of  pollen, 
which  seems  to  I'etain  its  vitality  for  several  days  if  kept 
^^.y  *  *  *  When  the  silks  reach  a  length  of  three  or 
four  inches  the  ear  is  ready  for  fertilization.  We  then 
gather  the  pollen  on  a  sheet  of  smooth  paper  and  roll  it  up 
funnel-shaped.  Next  raise  an  umbrella  and  hold  it  in  such 
a  way  as  to  keep  all  flying  pollen  from  the  ear,  remove  the 
bag,  and  apply  the  pollen  until  the  silks  are  almost  hidden. 
In  favorable  corn  weather  a  single  application  of  pollen  is 
sufficient." 

The  practical  results  of  cross  fertilization  to 
produce  new  varieties  are  as  yet  slightly  felt, 
so  far  as  experimental  data  goes.  The  results 
now  published  are  interesting,  yet  contain 
much  of  uncertainty.  Morrow  and  Gardner 
think,  however,!  that  increased  yields  can  be 
obtained  by  crossing  two  varieties,  and  note 


*  Illinois  experiment  station.     Bulletin  No.  21,  p.  100. 
t  Ibid.,  No.  25,  April,  1893,  p.  179, 


MISCELLANKOL'S. 


225 


fliiil,  ;i  IVw  fiiniK.M-s  arc  cliaiigiu;^^  tlieif  practice 
accoiiliiiyfly.  This  practical  crossing  is  acconi- 
l)lislicd  hy  planting  in  one  row  one  variety  and 
in  the  next  another,  and  removing  the  tassels 
of  the  one  as  so(jn  as  tliey  appear.  Of  course 
the  ears  of  the  phmts  lacking  tassels  will  be 
fertilized  by  the  other  row  where  pollen  exists, 
thus  producing  a  cross  from  which  seed  may 
be  selected. 

Not  much  effect  may  be  seen  as  the  result  of 
planting  crossed  seed  the  first  year,  while  the 
second  it  may  be  very  marked. 

Interesting  data  concerning  several  crossing 
experiments  is  given  by  McCluer  in  the  bulle- 
tins previously  referred  to  from  which  the  fol- 
lowing notes  are  gleaned.  Figs.  CO,  Gl  and  G2, 
loaned  by  the  Illinois  station,  show  the  effects 
of  some  cross  fertilizing  done  there: 

'•Of  142  plats  planted  with  sweet  corn,  popcoi-n,  and  these 
crosses,  it  is  safe  to  say  there  was  as  much  uniformity  in  any 
one  of  the  crossed  plats  as  in  any,  and  very  much  more  than 
was  found  in  most  of  the  plats  planted  with  pure  varieties. 

'•Corn  grown  from  the  crosses  the  second  year  has  con- 
tinued to  he  comparatively  uniform  in  type  where  the  parent 
vai'ieties  were  similai",  but  where  the  parent  varieties  were 
widely  dilTerent,  as  in  the  crosses  between  sweet  and  dent, 
the  proye'ny  has  tended  strongly  to  run  back  to  the  parent 
forms,  while  at  the  same  time  taking  on  other  forms  differ- 
ent from  either. 

"From  the  work  so  far  done  there  seems  to  be  no  way  of 
telling  befoi-ehand  what  varieties  will,  when  ci-ossed,  pro- 
duce corn  of  an  increased  sizi;,  and  what  will  not. 

'•In  the  production  of  new  varieties  by  crossing  it  will 
15 


226 


INDIAN    CORN    CULTURE. 


MlSCELLANEOt'S. 


227 


22S 


INDIAN    CORN    CUJ/riRK. 


'^"W* 


O  3 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


229 


seldom  be  desirable  to  cross  two  varieties  that  are  very 
widely  diffei-ent  from  each  other.  It  is  probable  that,  on 
the  whole,  selection  with  occasional  partial  changes  of  seed 
will  give  more  permanent  as  well  as  more  satisfactory  re- 
sults for  the  general  farmer  than  would  the  continual  cross- 
ing and  breaking  up  of  well-fixed  types." 

Measuring  corn  in  the  crib— Multiply  the 
length,  breadth  and  height  of  the  crib  together 
in  feet  to  obtain  the  cubic  feet  of  space  it  con- 
tains. Multiply  this  product  by  four,  strike  off 
the  right  band  figure  and  the  result  will  be  the 
number  of  shelled  bushels.  This  measure  is 
not  absolutely  correct,  but  nearly  so. 

White  vs.  yellow  corn.— The  question  of  the 
relative  merits  of  white  and  yellow  corn  has 
been  discussed  in  the  agricultural  press  and  be- 
fore farmers'  meetings  at  frequent  intervals. 
From  the  chemical  standpoint  the  color  seems 
to  have  no  special  significance.  Upon  the  ques- 
tion of  relative  productiveness  opinions  have 
been  rather  evenly  divided.  Tracy  and  Lloyd 
of  the  Mississippi  station  made  a  special  inves- 
tigation of  this  subject,  upon  which  they  ren- 
dered an  interesting  report.*  Of  the  tests  made 
at  seven  agricultural  experiment  stations  six 
report  greater  yields  with  white  than  yellow 
varieties.  The  following  table  by  Tracy  and 
Lloyd  gives  a  summary  of  their  investigations 
on  this  subject: 

*  Bulletin  33,  Mississippi  agricultural  experiment  station, 
March,  1895. 


230 


INDIAN    CORN   CULTURE. 


Wliite. 

rellow. 

jExcess  yield. 

STATION   TEST- 
ING. 

varieties 
tested. 

H 
54 
16 
53 
30 
25 
25 

217 

Yield 
per 
acre 

3fi.7bu. 
63.1  bu. 
54  8  bu. 
54  2  bu. 
47.5  bu. 
43  0  bu. 
55.4  bu. 

56!7bu. 

mnnber 

varieties 

tested. 

14 
101 
28 

67 
9 
20 
34 

Yield 
per 
acre. 

While. 

Yellow. 

Arkansas 

Illinois 

36  0  bu. 

62.0  bu. 
56.3  bu. 

53.1  bu. 
39.7  bu. 
3S  7  bu. 
51.3  bu. 

0.1  bu. 
1.1  bu. 

i'.ibu. 
7.8  bu. 
4.3  bu. 
4.1  bu. 

2!5bu". 

1.5  bu. 

Kansas 

Louisiana 

lUlsBlsslppI  

Ohio 

Total 

273 

4s!2'bu'. 

Average 

It  does  not  follow,,  however,  from  this  table 
that  all  white  varieties  yield  more  than  all  yel- 
low ones.  Numerous  yellow  varieties  are  fully 
as  productive  as  many  white  ones.  It  is  worthy 
of  note  that  this  table  shows  a  yield  in  favor  of 
w4iite  varieties,  especially  in  the  South,  wdiere 
yellow  corn  is  grown  much  less  than  in  the 
North.  If  the  best  varieties  of  w^hite  and 
yellow  were  compared  the  relative  difference 
would  .probably  be  slight. 

Corn  palaces.  —  Much  beautiful  decorative 
work  of  a  temporary  character  has  been  done 
with  Indian  corn.  This  work  has  been  most 
extensively  done  in  Sioux  City,  la.,  wdiere  for 
several  years  so-called  corn  palaces  have  been 
erected.  This  was  first  attempted  in  1887  at 
Sioux  City^  where  the  idea  originated.  A  corn 
palace,  says  the  Pacific  Rural  Press,  is  covered 
and  embellished,  as  "with  tapestiy,  outside  and 
inside,  with  products  of  the  field,  corn  predom- 
inating, ingeniously  and  fancifully  arranged. 
In  building  the  palace  a  large  structure  is  first 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


231 


erected  of  lumber,  of  a  shape  that  will  carry 
and  show  to  advantage  the  multiform  decora- 
tions with  which  it  is  to  be  adorned.  It  is  in 
form  lofty,  with  broken  lines,  pinnacles,  but- 
tresses, bridges,  gables,  ornamental  windows, 
etc.  Over  every  inch  of  this  wooden  surface 
are  laid  corn  and  kindred  plants  in  architect- 
ural harmony,  in  a  multiplicity  of  designs. 
The  corn  is  used  in  the  stalk,  eai-,  kernel,  and 
even  the  husk  has  its  decorative  uses.  The 
w^alls  are  covered  on  the  outside  with  ears  of 
corn,  cut  lengthwise  or  crosswise,  and  nailed 
on  in  geometrical  figures  or  other  designs.  The 
various  colors  of  the  cereal  permit  of  a  wide 
range  of  shading  and  coloring. 

The  Sioux  City  corn  palace  in  1887  was  lOOx 
210  feet,  wdth  dome  and  spire  over  100  feet 
high,  and  of  Moorish  style  of  architecture.  The 
outside  was  a  blending  of  corn  of  various  colors 
arranged  in  many  designs.  It  is  said  25,000 
bushels  of  ears  were  used  in  decorating  this 
palace  and  city. 

In  1889  the  decorations  were  of  great  merit. 
From  the  kernel  pictures  illustrating  farm 
scenes,  legendary  and  nursery  tales,  etc.,  were 
made  on  the  walls.  Frescoes  and  flowers, 
figures  of  persons  and  animals,  draperies,  and 
numerous  surprising  and  beautiful  things  were 
also  worked  out. 

In  1890  a  building  264  feet  square,  with  a 


232 


INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


central  part  and  dome  172  feet  high,  was 
erected.  The  main  building  was  in  the  form 
of  an  octagon  l-JoG  feet  across.  A  central  space 
78  feet  in  diameter  was  unobstructed  by  pillar 
or  post.     The  decorations  in  this  building  were 


^^,-- 


M^ 


J24i)  ^  -'.«■. 


OF  1889. 


■-:3»IM 


Fig.  C3.— THE  SioDX  City  Coun  v 

very  remarkable  and   included   among  other 
things  a  miniature  Niagara  Falls. 

At  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  the 
low^a  building  w^as  very  beautifully  decorated 
all  over  the  inside  wdth  Indian  corn  in  many 
unique  designs. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


233 


Number  of  days  required  to  mature  va- 
rieties-The  following  data  is  abstracted  from 
an  interesting  article  on  the  subject  by  Prof. 
W.  C.  Latta.*  Excessive  rain  in  late  seasons 
often  delays  planting  in  spring.  This  was  the 
case  in  Indiana  and  Illinois  in  1892.  The  bulk 
of  the  crop  was  not  planted  before  June  1.^ 

Can  the  varietiescommonly  grown  in  Indiana 
be  matured  when  planted  as  late  as  June  10? 
The  following  table  is  the  result  of  experiments 
at  Purdue  University,  and  shows  the  number 
of  days  required  for  varieties  to  mature: 


Boone  Co.  White 

Munn'B  Early 

Riley's  Kuvorlte 

White  Prolitic 

Yellow  Nonesuch 

Hartmnn's  White 

Early  Yellow  Dent  .... 

Yellow  Dent 

Yellow  Speckled  Dent. 
Purdue  Yellow 


Number 

days  to  mature  in. 

Average  No. 

days  Jor 
thiee  yeajs. 

1889. 

1800. 

1891. 

139 

121 

124 

128 

105 

118 

111 

138 

116 

124 

126 

138 

121 

12U 

121 

)25 

123 

no 

122 

119 

in 

114 

112 

lie 

110 

116 

112 

114 

113 

102 

HI 

11* 

The  cause  of  this  wide  range  in  time  for 
maturing  is  dependent  on  season— whether 
warm  or  cold,  wet  or  dry,  or  seasonable. 

With  average  weather  conditions  any  of  the 
above-named  varieties  would  mature  in  Sep- 
tember as  far  north  as  Lafayette  if  planted  by 
June  1.  Late-planted  corn  will  mature  in  five 
or  ten  less  days,  owing  to  higher  temperature 
as  the  season  advances. 


*  Indiana  Farmer,  May  28,  1892. 


234  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


LITERATURE  ON   INDIAN   CORN. 

Thousands  of  articles  on  Indian  corn  and 
its  culture  have  been  printed  in  agricultural 
papers,  and  numerous  addresses  on  this  plant 
have  been  published  in  agricultural  and  other 
reports.  The  bulletins  of  most  of  the  agri- 
cultural experiment  stations  have  published 
experimental  data  the  result  of  culture  or  feed- 
ing tests.  The  stations  of  Illinois,  Indiana, 
Ohio,  New  York,  Massachusetts,  Missouri,  Kan- 
sas, Wisconsin  and  Minnesota  have  given  spe- 
cial attention  to  problems  concerning  the  grow- 
ing or  feeding  of  this  plant.  Special  chapters 
on  corn  have  also  been  published  in  books  de- 
voted to  the  cereals  in  general  and  in  cyclopae- 
dias and  agricultural  volumes. 

So  far  as  the  writer  has  been  able  to  ascer- 
tain, but  few  books  or  pamphlets  have  been 
published  on  Indian  corn  or  maize.  The  fol- 
lowing titles,  given  in  sequence  of  issue,  are  of 
those  publications  in  the  author's  possession. 
This  list  probably  could  be  extended  some, 
though  not  materially: 

Parmentier^  A.  A.    Le  mais  on  h\h  de  Turquie, 


LITERATURE   ON   INDIAN   CORN.  235 

apprecie  sous  tous  ses  rapports:  Paris,  1812,  pp. 
303;  paper. 

Lespes,  J.  Max  Louis.  Essai  siir  le  mais  on 
ble  cle  Turquie,  considere  sous  ses  rapports  by- 
gienique  efc  medical:    Paris,  1825,  pp.  44;  paper. 

Cohhett,  William.  A.  treatise  on  Col)bett's 
corn,  containing  instructions  for  propagating 
and  cultivating  tbe  plant  and  for  harvesting 
and  preserving  tbe  crop;  and  also  an  account 
of  tbe  several  uses  to  wbicb  tbe  produce  is  ap- 
plied, witb  minute  directions  relative  to  each 
mode  of  application:  London,  1828,  pp.  290,  pi. 
Ill;  balf  leatber,  7x4^  in. 

Bonafous,  Mutthieu.  Histoire  naturelle,  agri- 
cole  et  economique  du  mais.  Extrait  presente 
a  la  societe  d'agriculture  de  I'Herault,  par  M. 
Raffenau-Delile.  Abstract  in  Bulletin  de  la 
Societe  de  I'Herault,  September,  1836,  of  con- 
tents of  large  illustrated  volume  published  in 
1836  at  Paris  hj  Bonafous. 

Salisbury,  J.  H.  History  and  mythology  of 
Indian  corn.  From  Transactions  New  York 
State  Agricultural  Society,  1848,  pp.  678-692. 

Flint,  C.  L.  An  essay  on  the  history  and  im- 
portance of  Indian  corn  as  an  agricultural  prod- 
uct. From  Transactions  New  York  State  Agri- 
cultural Society,  1849,  pp.  281-293. 

Enjield,  Edivard.  Indian  corn;  its  value,  cul- 
ture and  uses.  New  York:  D.  Appleton  &  Co., 
1866,  pp.  308;  cloth,  5x7J  in. 


236  INDIAN   CORN   CULTURE. 

Kdrniche,  Fr.  Vorlaufige  Mittheilungen  aber 
den  mais.  (Abstracted  from  den  Sitzungsber- 
ichten  der  Niederrheinischen  Gessellschaft  fur 
Natur-und  Heilkunde.)    Bonn,  1872,  p.  16. 

Sturtevant,  M.  D.,  E.  Lewis.  Indian  corn. 
Paper  prCvSented  by  request  at  the  annual  meet- 
ing of  the  Massachusetts  State  board  of  agri- 
culture, Jan.  22,  1879,  pp.  38. 

Godron,  D.  A.  Note  sur  le  mais  geant  Cara- 
gua  (Zea  Caragua  Molin).  (Extracted  from  la 
Revue  des  Sciences  naturelles  de  Montpellier, 
June,  1880,  pp.  3.) 

Stinievant,  E.  Leivis.  Maize:  An  attempt  at 
classification.  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  December,  1883, 
pp.  9,  fig.  21.  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  Democrat  and 
Chronicle  Print,  1884.  Printed  for  private  dis- 
tribution only. 

Sturtevant y.E.  Leivis.  Indian  corn  and  the 
Indian.  From  the  American  Naturalist,  March, 
1885,  pp.  226-234. 

Devol,  W.  S.  A  study  of  the  germination  of 
corn.  Thesis  presented  at  Ohio  State  Univer- 
sity for  the  degree  of  B.  Ag.,  June  23,  1886,  pp. 
12. 

Scott^  Mary  S.  Indian  corn  as  human  food. 
Nevada,  la.:  Payne  &  Son,  1889,  pp.  122;  boards, 
4-|x6  inches. 

Mnrphy,  Charles  J.  American  Indian  corn 
(maize)  as  a  cheap,  wliolesome  and  nutritious 
food.     Lecture  delivered  by  Charles  J.  Murphy 


LITERATURE   ON   INDIAN   CORN. 


237 


before  tlie  National  Agricultural  Society  of 
France  at  the  International  Congress  of  Mill- 
ers, held  at  Paris  in  August,  1SS9.  Edinburg, 
Scotland:   R.  Grant  &  Son,  1890,  pp.  97;  paper. 

Ladd,  E.  F.  Investigation  upon  maize.  Re- 
printed from  the  Journal  of  the  American 
Chemical  Society,  Vol.  XII,  No.  8,  pp.  24. 

Murphy,  Wiley  &  Snow.  Report  on  the  use 
of  maize  (Indian  corn)  in  Europe,  and  the  pos- 
sibilities of  its  extension.  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  AVashington :  Govern- 
ment Printing  Office,  1891,  pp.  36. 

Ilarshhergcr,  John  W.  Maize:  A  Ijotanical 
and  economic  study.  Contributions  from  the 
botanical  laboratory  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, Vol.  I,  No.  2,  1893,  pp.  75-202,  pi.  IV; 
paper. 

Sturtevant,  E.  E.  Notes  on  maize.  Reprinted 
from  Bulletin  Torrey  Botanical  Club,  Vol.  XXI, 
Aug.  20,  1894,  pp.  319-343,  and  Dec.  24,  1894, 
pp.  503-523. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. 

A  large  number  of  the  illustrations  in  this 
book  were  provided  through  the  kindness  of 
numerous  friends  of  the  author,  agricultural 
experiment  stations  and  manufacturers  of  ma- 
chinery making  loans  of  electrotypes  and  en- 
gravings. The  writer  here  wishes  to  express 
]iis  hearty  appreciation  for  favors  of  this  char- 
acter to  the  following: 


238  INDIAN  CORN  CULTURE. 

S.  L.  Allen  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Gale  Manufacturing 
Co.,  Albion,  Mich.;  Deere  &  Co.,  Moline,  111.;  David  Brad- 
ley Manufacturing  Co.,  Chicago,  111.;  Emerson,  Talcott  & 
Co.,  Rockford,  111.;  Challenge  Corn-Planter  Co.,  Grand 
Rai^ids,  Mich.;  Stoddard  Manufacturing  Co.,  Dayton,  O.; 
Richmond  Safety  Gate  Co.,  Richmond,  Ind.;  J.  D.  Tower  & 
Bro.,  Mendota,  111.;  Rock  Island  Plow  Co.,  Rock  Island, 
111.;  Foos  Manufacturing  Co.,  Springfield,  O.;  St.  Albans 
Foundry  Co.,  St.  Albans,  Vt.;  Keystone  Manufacturing  Co., 
Sterling,  111.;  Illinois  Experiment  Station,  Champaign,  111.; 
Iowa  Experiment  Station^  Ames,  la.;  Indiana  Experiment 
Station,  Lafayette,  Ind.;  Nebraska  Experiment  Station, 
Lincoln,  Neb.,  and  Prof.  F.  M.  Webster,  Wooster,  O. 


INDEX. 


Acknowledgemeiits,  237. 
Acres  corn  in  Uuited  State.s.  206,  207. 
Adaptability  of  varieties.  40. 
Alabama,  varieties  for.  •!(). 
Angoumis  grain  moth,  143. 
Anthers,  16. 

Aphis  maidis.  Forbes,  12(. 
Arkansas,  varieties  for,  11. 
Artificial  fertilizers,  61. 
Average  yield  iu  bushels  rer  acre, 
210. 

Bacterial  disease,  151. 

Bill  bugs,  corn,  138. 

Blissus  leucoplerus,  Say,  131. 

Borer,  stalk,  134. 

Botanical  characteristics,  12. 

Botanical  races,  17. 

Buffalo  gluten  feed,  180. 

Bug,  chinch,  134. 

Bugs,  corn  bill,  138. 

Butt,  center  and  tip  kernels,  relative 

value  of,  48,  52. 
By-products,  composition  of,  lou. 

constituents  in,  1S3. 

of  the  corn  plant  for  feed.  Id'. 

Caldwell  on  gluten  meal,  181. 
Canada,  varieties  for,  46. 
Canning,  variety  for,  37. 
Capacity  of  silo,  196. 
Carbohydrates.  161. 
Carbonaceous  food,  corn  a,  Ito      _ 
Center    and    tip    kernels,    relative 

value  of  butt,  48,  52. 
Characteristics,  botanical,  12. 
Chemical  composition  and  digesti- 

bUity,158. 
Chicago  gluten  meal,  ISO. 
Chinch  bug.  134. 
Chop,  hominy,  180. 
Cob-and-coru   meal  vs.    corn-meal, 

178. 
Colorado,  varieties  for,  41. 
Composition  and  digestibility,chem- 
ical,  154. 

of  by-products,  156. 

of  grain,  154. 

of  green  corn,  156. 

of  mill  products,  155. 
Constituents,  fertilizing,  15'.i. 

in  by-products,  183. 

of  foods,  16L 


Corn-and-cob  meal  vs.  corn-meal, 178. 
Corn  bill  bugs,  138. 

for  silage,  200. 

hearts,  183. 

horse,  108. 

palaces,  230. 

worm,  140. 
Corneous  matter,  18. 
Cost  of  growing  a  crop,  216. 
Cost  of  silage,  203. 
Cost  of  silo,  199. 
Cotton  seed  for  manure,  67. 
Covering  silage,  203. 
Cow,  ration  for  dairy,  165. 
Cream  gluten,  180. 
Crib,  measuring  corn  in  the,  229. 
Crop,  cost  of  growing  a,  216. 

of  the  world,  211. 

value  of  corn,  160. 
Crops  for  soiling.  185. 
1         rotation  of,  121. 
Cross  fertilization,  223. 
Culm,  14. 
Cultivation,  depth  of,  78. 

frequency  of,  76. 
Cultivating,  73. 
Cutting  for  silage,  101. 
in  soiling,  early,  190. 
methods  of,  102. 
time  for,  99. 
Cut  worms,  130. 

Dairy  cow,  ration  for,  165. 

Days  required.to  mature  varieties, 

number,  233. 
Dent  corn,  18,  21. 
Depth  of  cultivation,  78. 

of  planting,  92. 
Detasseling.  213. 
Diabrotica  longicornis,  Say,  128. 
Digestible  constituents  in  by-prod- 
ucts, 183. 

matter  in  different  parts,  158. 
Digestibility,  157.      .  . 

chemical  composition  and,  154. 
Disease,  bacterial,  151. 
Diseases,  147. 
Distance  apart  of  planting,  rate  or, 

86. 
Drills  vs.  bills,  89. 

Ear,  insects  affecting  the,  140. 
type  of.  48,  54. 


240 


INDEX. 


Early  cutting  in  soiling,  190. 
Elateridcc,  127. 
Embryo  ear,  16. 
Exports,  208,  210. 

Fat,  161. 

Feed,  glucose,  179. 

gluten,  179. 

hominy,  180. 

maize,  180. 

starch,  179. 

sugar,  180. 
Feeding  of  live  stock,  161. 

silage,  204. 

standards,  162. 

stuffs,  manurial  value  of,  69. 
Female  flower,  lf>,  16. 
Fertility  removed  by  corn  crop,  DS. 
Fertilization,  cross,  223. 
Fertilizers,  experiments  with,  62. 

manures  and,  58. 

necessary,  58. 
Fertilizing  constituents,  159. 

flowers,  16. 
Filling  silo,  202. 
Fish  scrap  for  manure,  67. 
Flint  corn,  18. 

varieties,  27. 
Floor  for  silo,  lining  and,  194. 
Flour,  gluten,  179. 
Flower,  15. 

kinds  of,  15. 
Flowers,  fertilizing,  16. 
Fly,  seed  corn,  126. 
Fodder,  pulled,  111. 

testimony  concerning  shredded, 
116. 
Food,  corn  a  carbonaceous,  165. 
Foods,  constituents  of,  161. 
Form  of  silos,  193. 
Frequency  of  cultivation,  76. 

Georgia,  varieties  for,  41. 
Germination  temperature,  48. 
Glucose,  18. 

feed,  179. 

meal,  179. 
Gluten,  cream,  ISO. 

feed,  179. 

feed,  Buffalo,  180. 

flour,  179. 

grano,  179. 

meal,  179. 

meal,  Chicago,  180. 
Gortyna  mtela,  Guen.,  134. 
Grain,  composition  of,  154. 

moth,  Angoumis,  143. 
Grano-gluten,  179. 
Green  corn,  composition  of,  156. 

food,  beneficial  effects  of,  189. 

food,  importance  of,  184. 

manure,  67. 
Growers,  Indians  as  corn,  9. 
Growing  for  silage,  method  of,  201. 
Growth,  rapidity  of,  14. 


Grub,  white,  130. 

Harrowing,  73. 
Harvesting,  99. 

machinery,  103. 
Hearts,  corn,  183. 
Heliothis  armiger,  Hubn.,  140. 
HiUs,  drills  vs.,  89. 
Hinds  on  by-products,  182. 
Historical,  7. 
Home  of  maize,  8, 11. 
Hominy  chop,  180. 

feed,  180. 

meal,  180. 
Horse,  corn,  108. 
Horses,  rations  for,  166. 
Husking,  111. 

dispensing  with,  112. 

machines,  114. 

Illinois,  varieties  for,  42. 
Importance  of  green  food,  184. 

of  rotation,  123. 
Indiana,  varieties  for,  41. 
Indians  as  corn-growers,  9. 
Injuring  seed  after  planting,  insects, 

126. 
Insects,  126. 

affecting  the  roots,  127. 

affecting  the  stalk,  1.30. 

injuring  seed  after  planting,  126. 

other,  145. 
Iowa  station,  soiling  at,  188. 

varieties  for,  43. 
Judging  corn  ;  a  scale  of  points,  48, 
56. 

Kansas,  varieties  for,  43. 
Kentucky,  varieties  for,  43. 
Kernel,  17. 

Kernels,  relative  value  of  butt,  cen 
ter  and  tip,  48,  52. 

Lachnosterna  fusca,  FrOhle,  13Q 
Leaves,  14. 

on  stalk,  number,  15. 
Lining  and  floor  for  silo,  194. 
Listing,  94. 

Literature  on  Indian  corn,  234. 
Live  stock,  feeding  of,  161. 
Louse,  corn  plant,  127. 
Louisiana,  varieties  for,  43. 

Machinery,  harvesting,  103, 
Machines,  husking,  114. 
Maize  feed,  180. 
Male  flower,  15, 16. 
Manure,  effect  of  stable,  59. 
Manures  and  fertilizers,  ,58. 
Manurial  experiments,  summary  of, 
66. 

value  of  feeding  stuffs,  69. 
Meal,  corn-and-cob  meal   vs.  corn, 
178. 

glucose,  179. 


INDEX. 


241 


Meal,  gluten,  179. 

hominy,  180. 
Measuring  corn  in  the  crib,  229. 
Method  of  selecting  s«ed,  48,  50. 

of  preserving  seed,  48,  50. 
Methods  of  cutting,  102.  _ 
Mill  products,  compositiou  of,  155. 
Mississippi,  varieties  for,  44. 
Missouri,  varieties  for,  44. 
Moth,  Angoumis  grain,  143. 

Nebraska,  varieties  for,  44. 
New  York,  varieties  for,  44. 
Night  soil  for  manure,  67. 
NoctuidcE,  130. 

Ohio,  varieties  for,  45. 
Oregon,  varieties  for,  45. 
Original  home,  8,  11. 
Ovule,  17, 

Palaces,  corn,  230. 

Panicle,  15. 

Pasture,  soiling  on,  191. 

Pennsylvania  station,  soiling  at,  Ihs 

varieties  for,  45. 
Phorbia  fusiceps,  Zetty,  126. 
Pistillate  flower,  16. 
Plant  louse,  corn,  127. 
Planting,  83. 

depth  of,  92.. 

insects  injuring  seed  after,  126. 

rate  or  distance  apart  of,  86. 

time  of,  83. 
Plowing,  71. 

Pod  corn,  19.  ,      t  ,^  ku 

Points,  judging  corn ;  a  scale  ot,ib,  ab. 
PoUou,  17. 
Pop  corn,  18. 

varieties,  39.  .-.o  m 

Preserving  seed,  method  of,  48,  50. 
Primary  root,  12. 
Protein,  IGl. 

Pruning  of  corn,  root,  80. 
Pulled  fodder,  111. 

Rate  or  distance  apart  of  planting, 

86. 
Races,  17. 

Ratio,  nutritive,  162. 
Ration  for  dairy  cow,  165. 
Rations  for  horses,  166. 

for  sheep,  172. 

for  swine,  176. 

iUustrated,  166. 
Rhode  Island,  varieties  for,  45. 
Roof  of  silo,  196. 
Root,  12. 

development,  12,  13. 

pruning  of  corn,  80. 

worm,  corn,  128. 
Roots,  insects  affecting  the,  127. 
Rotation,  importance  of,  123. 

of  crops,  121. 

systems  of,  124. 


Round  silo,  plans  for,  196. 
Rust,  153. 

Scale  of  points ;  judging  corn,  a,  48, 

56. 
Scrap  for  manure,  fish,  67. 
Sea  weeds  for  manure,  67. 
Secondary  root,  12,  13. 
Seed,  17, 48.  .         .... 

after  planting,  insects  injuring, 

126. 
porn  fly,  126. 

method  of  preserving,  48,  50. 
method  of  selecting.  48,  !)0. 
size  of,  48,  53. 
Selecting  a  variety.  20. 

seed,  method  of,  48,  50. 
Sheep,  rations  for,  172. 
Sheath,  14. 
Shocking,  106. 
Shocks,  tying,  109. 
Shredded  fodder,  testimony  concern- 
ing, 116. 
Shredding,  115. 
Silage,  corn  for,  200. 
cost  of,  203. 
covering,  203. 
cutting  for,  101. 
feeding,  204.        . 
method  of  growing  for,  201. 
silos  and,  192. 
varieties  for,  200. 
wetting,  203. 
Silk,  16. 

Sills  for  sUo,  195. 
Silo,  capacity,  196. 

constructing  a,  192. 
cost  of,  199. 
fiUing,  202. 
forms  for,  193. 
lining  and  floor  for,  194. 
plans  for  round,  196. 
roof.  196. 
sills,  195. 
square,  199. 
walls,  194. 
Silos  and  sUage,  192. 
SitotroOLi  cerealeUa,  Oliv.,  143. 
Sizeof  seod,4S,  53. 
Smut,  147. 

preventing,  151. _ 
said  to  bo  injurious,  150. 
Soft  corn,  19. 

Soil  for  manure,  night,  bv. 
Soiling,  184. 

at  Iowa  station,  188.  _ 
at  Pennsylvania  station,  188. 
at  Wisconsin  station,  187. 
crops  for,  185. 
early  cutting  in,  190. 
on  pasture,  191. 
Stewart  on  corn  for,  189. 
variety  of  corn  for,  187. 
South  Dakota,  varieties  for,  45. 
1  Sphenophorus,  138. 


242 


INDEX. 


Sphenophorus  ochcreus,  Lee,  138. 

Square  silo,  199. 

Stable  manure,  59. 

Stacking,  109. 

Stalk  borer,  134.      . 

Stalk,  insects  affecting  tlio,  1.30. 

number  leaves  on,  15. 
Staminate  flower,  16. 
Standard,  feeding,  162. 
Starch  feed,  179. 
Starchy  matter,  18. 
Statistics,  205. 
Stem,  14. 

Stewart  on  corn  for  soiling,  189. 
S'-ock,  feeding  of  live,  161. 
Succession,  sweet  corn  for,  3S. 
Sugar  feed,  180. 
Sweet  corn,  18. 
Sweet  on  gluten  meal,  182. 

corn  for  succession,  38. 

varieties,  33. 
Swine,  rations  for,  176. 
Symptoms  of  bacterial  disease,  152. 
Systems  of  rotation,  124. 

Tassel,  15, 16. 

Temperature,  germination,  48. 

Tennessee,  varieties  for,  46.  ' 

Testimony  concerning  shredded  fod- 
der, 116. 

Testimony  from  users  of  by-prod- 
ucts, 181. 

Threshing  corn,  120. 

Tillage,  71. 

Time  for  cutting,  99. 
of  planting,  83. 

Tip  kernels,  relative  value  of  butt, 
center  and,  48,  52. 

Tested  varieties,  21, 

Tying  shocks,  109. 

Typo  of  ear,  48,  54. 

United  States,  acres  corn  in,  206. 207. 

value  corn  in,  206,  207. 

yield  of  corn  in,  206,  207,  208. 
Ustilago  maydis,  Corda.,  147. 

Value  corn  crop,  160. 

corn  in  United  States,  206,  207. 
Varieties- 
Adams'  Early,  21. 

B.  <k  W.,  22. 

Black  Mexican,  33. 

Black  Sugar,  33. 

Blount's  Prolific,  22. 

Boone  Co.  White,  22. 

Burrill  &,  Whitman,  22. 

Canada,  27,  30. 

Canada  Twelve-Rowed,  27. 

Chester  Co.  Mammoth,  23. 

Compton's  Early,  28. 

Compton's  Surprise,  28. 

Cory,  33,  38. 

Cory  Early  Sugar,  33. 

Crosby's  Early.  34. 


Varieties — 

Crosby's  Early  Twelve-Rowed,.34. 

Dungan's  White  Prolific,  24. 

Duttou,  28.  . 

Dwarf  Golden,  39. 

Earliest  Rockford  Market,  33. 

Early  Canada,  27,  30. 

Early  Concord,  35. 

Early  Cory,  33. 

Early  Button,  28. 

Early  Marblehead.  34. 

Early  Minnesota,  34. 

Early  Narragansott,  35. 

Egyptian,  34,  38,  39. 

Eight-Rowed  Brown,  29. 

Eight-Rowed  Copper-Colored,29. 

Eight-Rowed  Yellow,  28,  29. 

Extra  Early  Cory.  33. 

Extra  Early  Crosby,  34. 

Farmer's  Favorite,  24. 

Ford's  Early,  34,  35. 

Golden  Beauty,  24. 

Hickox,  34,  38. 

Hickox  Improved,  34. 

Improved  King  Philip,  29. 

King  Philip,  29. 
,      La  Crosse,  33. 

Landreth's  Earliest  Yellow,  27, 
28. 

Learning,  24. 

Longfellow,  30. 

Long  Island  White  Flint,  31. 

Long  Yellow,  28. 

Mammoth,  38. 

Marblehead,  34. 

Maryland  White  Gourd  Seed,  25. 

Maule's  XX  Sugar,  36. 

Minnesota,  34. 

Moore's  Concord,  35,  38. 

Moore's  Early,  35. 

Moore's  Early  Concord,  35. 

Narragansett,  35. 

Ne  Plus  Ultra,  36. 

New  England,  39. 

New  England  Eight-Rowed,  30, 

Nonpareil,  39. 

Northern  Pedigree,  38. 

Pearl,  39. 

Pee  and  Kay,  36. 

Perry's  Hybrid,  38. 

Pride  of  the  North,  2,5. 

Queen  of  the  Prairie,  26. 

Riley's  Favorite,  26. 

Rural  Thoroughbred  Flint,  3L 

Shaker's  Early,  38. 

.Slate  Sweet,  33. 

SmetUey,  27. 

Squautum,  37. 

Stabler's  Early,  38. 

Triumph,  38. 

Sto well's  Evergreen,  36,  38. 

Washington  Market,  34. 

Waushakum,  31. 

Western  Queen,  36. 

White  Flint.  32. 


INDEX. 


248 


Varieties — 

White  Rice,  39. 

Wisconsin  Yellow,  27. 
Varieties  and  their  adaptation,  20, 
40. 

for  silage,  200. 

number  days  required  to  mature, 
233. 
Variety  for  canning,  37. 

of  corn  for  soiling,  187. 

selecting  a.  20. 

Weeds  for  manure,  sea,  67. 
White  grub,  130. 

vs.  yeUow,  229. 
Wild  maizo,  8. 
Wire  worms,  127. 


W'isconsin  station,  soiling  at,  187. 

varieties  for,  46. 
Wolff's  tables,  163. 
World,  corn  crop  of  the,  211. 
Worm,  corn.  140. 

corn  root,  128. 
Worms,  cut,  130. 

wire.  127. 
Wyoming,  varieties  for,  46. 

Yellow  vs.  white,  229. 

Yield  in  bushels  per  acre,  average, 

210. 
Yield  of  corn  in  United  States,  206, 

207,208. 
Yields  of  Indian  corn,  large,  220. 


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